Introduction and History

The Hebrew scriptures now called the Bible

·        Hebrew Bible (Mikra): A foundational document of Israel, describing its origins and visions of a just society.

o   Derived from Kara, meaning "that which is read".

o   Known as TaNaK: an acronym for Torah (teaching), Nevi’im (prophets), and Ketuvim (writings).

·        Bible: Comes from the Greek "ta biblia," meaning "books".

o   Reflects a collection of individual texts (e.g., Genesis, Exodus, Isaiah, Song of Songs).

o   Traditional name for the Torah is Chumash, indicating it is composed of five books.

·        Historical Context:

o   Individual books were published as scrolls, not bound together.

o   Included various genres: narratives, poetry, legal texts, prophecies.

o   Challenges in reading as a unified text due to diversity in genres.

·        Canonization:

o   The process of deciding which books are included in the Bible.

o   Concluded during the 1st century CE.

o   Earliest complete manuscripts date from the 9th century CE; the Masoretic Text differs slightly from fragments.

·        Origins of the Bible:

o   Belief that the Torah was revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai.

o   Prophets authored their own books; King David and Solomon attributed with writing several works (e.g., Psalms).

o   (Lamentations is attributed to the prophet Jeremiah)

·        Scholarly Perspectives:

o   Internal contradictions suggest multiple authors or redactors involved in compiling texts.

o   Initial critical theories suggested by Christian theologians claimed later Judaism was a corruption of early biblical religion.

o   Many Jewish scholars today integrate these critical insights, interpreting redactors as "Rabbenu" (our Rabbi and teacher).

The Old Testament: a Christian name for the Hebrew Bible

·        Tanakh: Known in Judaism as the Bible, it is an acronym for Torah (Teaching), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings).

·        Distinction: The term Old Testament differentiates it from the New Testament (Brit Chad’shah), a collection of Christian texts not considered part of the Jewish faith.

·        Authorship: Most of the Old Testament was written in Hebrew, with a few sections in Aramaic.

·        Translations: The term Old Testament often refers to English or Latin translations of the Bible.

·        Books Count: The Tanakh is comprised of 24 books, with a history spanning around 850 years.

·        Genres: Includes narratives, law codes, short stories, etiological tales, prophecies, exhortations, poetry, and wisdom writing.

·        Jewish Believers: Some Jewish believers see Yeshua (Jesus) as the Messiah, yet the Christian Old Testament and Tanakh have identical texts but different order and categorization of books compared to Jewish tradition.

Canonization of the Hebrew Bible.

·        Scholars believe the Bible's books were written over a long period, dating from King David and King Solomon (1000 BCE) to the 2nd century BCE.

·        After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, significant Jewish literary traditions emerged:

o   The Mishnah (redacted around 200 CE)

o   The Talmud (redacted around 500 CE)

·        Additional writings appeared between the Biblical and Rabbinic periods, including:

o   Apocrypha

o   Pseudepigrapha

o   Dead Sea Scrolls

·        These ancient texts, although not part of the mainstream Jewish literary canon, provide important historical connections linking the biblical and rabbinic periods, offering insights into:

o   Founding of Christianity

o   Jewish biblical canonization process

·        Apocrypha: Meaning ‘hidden things’ in Greek, refers to works deemed canonical by the Egyptian Jewish community but not included in the Palestinian community's smaller canon, now Tanak.

·        Early Church preserved Apocryphal works in:

o   Latin (Vulgate)

o   Greek (Septuagint)

·        Examples of Apocryphal texts include:

o   Additions to Esther and Daniel

o   Books of Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon

o   First three books of Maccabees

o   there was always a Greek input in the history. Just think of the statute of Nebukadnesar.

·        The First and Second Books of Maccabees detail Judah Maccabee's and his brothers' struggles for Judean liberation from foreign rule.

·        Scholars propose several theories for the exclusion of Maccabees from the Jewish biblical Canon.

·        Some believe that only Hebrew texts were eligible for inclusion, leading to the exclusion of Maccabees written in Greek.

·        Others argue that the relatively minor significance of the Maccabean Revolt justified its exclusion from the Bible, though this is contradicted by the inclusion of the Book of Daniel, which is partially Aramaic and dates to the same period.

·        Additional theories suggest the early rabbinic Pharisees intentionally left Maccabees out for praising the priestly class, while others theorize that promoting a successful Jewish revolt under Roman rule seemed politically unwise.

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha: External text from the Second Temple.

The formation of the Hebrew Bible, (or TaNakh) as we know it, was not a foregone historical conclusion.

Jewish Pseudepigraphy

·        Today's TaNaKH results from a centuries-long process of selection and modification.

·        This process occurred around 2000 years ago.

·        The formation of the canon involved historical dynamics that led to the exclusion of other Jewish texts.

Two different sets of ancient texts

·        Two ancient text sets not included in the Hebrew Bible highlight the diversity of the emerging Judeo-Christian community (200 BCE - 70 CE).

·        Apocrypha:

o   Meaning "hidden things" in Greek.

o   A collection of works deemed canonical by the Egyptian Jewish community in Alexandria.

o   Not included in the Palestinian Jewish canon (TaNak).

o   Preserved in the Latin (Vulgate) and Greek (Septuagint) versions of the Old Testament.

o   Remains part of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons.

·        Pseudepigrapha:

o   Collection of texts with unknown authorship attributed to biblical figures.

o   Meaning "false writings" in Greek.

o   Includes manuscripts in Greek, Ethiopic, Syriac, and Slavonic.

o   Preserved primarily by eastern branches of the Christian Church, primarily the Ethiopian one.

·        Many Jewish believers have made sacrifices, including death, for God's teachings (Romans 3:2).

·        God entrusted the Jews with His teachings and Oracles, making them the keepers of His Word.

·        Therefore the House of Judah is referred to as the word keeper.

·        The House of Judah has historically preserved the Scriptures, despite facing persecution (crucifixion, lions, etc.).

·        They have maintained the integrity of His words, including the Torah and Holy Scriptures.

·        Key scriptures affirm their commitment to preservation:

o   John 17:6: "I have manifested thy name unto the men which thou gavest me out of the world: Thine they were, and thou gavest them me; and they have kept thy word."

o   Revelation 3:8: "I know thy works. Behold, I have set before thee an open door, and no man can shut it; for thou hast a little strength, and hast kept my word, and hast not denied my name."

o   Revelation 3:10: "Because thou hast kept the word of my patience, I also will keep thee from the hour of temptation, which shall come upon all the world, to try them that dwell upon the earth."

·        Today's believers have access to the Holy Scriptures due to the sacrifices of Jewish believers.

·        All believers in Messiah Yeshua owe a debt of honor to the House of Judah (Jewish Nation).

Importance of Dead Sea scrolls.

·        The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in the Judean desert at Qumran, provide significant scholarly insights.

·        They illuminate the political, ideological, and historical context of their authors and audience.

·        The texts reveal religious beliefs and practices, along with daily activities of the community.

·        They shed light on debates regarding the canonization of the TaNaKh and various sectarian influences.

·        These scrolls help contextualize other contemporary literature, including Hellenistic writings (mostly Greek) and works by Flavius Josephus and Philo.

·        They trace the historical connection leading to the New Testament and the rise of a new religion.

·        The scrolls bridge the gap between the Bible and rabbinic literature, setting the stage for the development of rabbinic Judaism.

Second Temple Judaism.(Time period when Messiah Yeshua was on the earth.)

·        Scholars have compiled over 900 documents, primarily in Hebrew, with some in Aramaic and Greek, believed to belong to an ancient Jewish sect.

·        The collection was discovered in the Judean Desert in Israel, indicating that the sect likely lived in that area.

·        Archaeological finds include communal halls and buildings near the caves where the scrolls were located.

·        It is thought that the sect hid the documents in caves to protect them from the Roman invasion of Israel in 68 CE.

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

·        In 1947, the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered by a Bedouin shepherd near the Dead Sea in Wadi Qumran, present-day Israel.

·        They contain the oldest known records of the Hebrew Bible, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.

·        The scrolls also include Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha texts.

·        A total of 900 documents were found, including legislative materials, commentaries, embellishments on the Pentateuch, and hymns used by the Qumran community.

·        These scrolls provide significant insight into the Jewish community during the Second Temple period.

·        The texts were produced by a sectarian community with apocalyptic beliefs, anticipating a battle between good and evil.

·        This community followed a distinct older calendar, different from that of Jerusalem.

·        Scholars suggest the Qumran sect fled to the Judean Wilderness due to a schism with the mainstream Jewish community, likely concerning priestly authority and practices.

Scrolls and fragments of scrolls.

·        Scrolls and fragments of all Hebrew Bible books found at Qumran, except for Esther and Ezra/Nehemiah.

·        The Great Isaiah Scroll is the best-preserved document, containing all 66 chapters intact.

·        Two complete Isaiah Scrolls and fragments from at least 20 other Isaiah Scrolls were discovered.

·        Isaiah was likely a revered text within this sect, believed to fulfill the prophecy of preparing the way of the Lord (Isa 40:3).

·        The Qumran Isaiah texts display differences from the modern Hebrew Bible.

·        During the composition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, not just the Pentateuch, but all supplementary books were viewed as canonical, with multiple versions existing alongside the fixed text.

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha discovered at Qumran

·        Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha documents discovered at Qumran were primarily maintained by different branches of Christianity.

·        The most prevalent texts in the Qumran library include:

o   Books of Jubilees:

o   Focuses on adjusting the calendar to biblical events from creation.

o   Its prominence indicates the meticulous nature of the Qumran sect.

o   Book of Enoch:

o   Predicts various apocalyptic events.

o   Aligns with the community's messianic beliefs.

·        Two additional texts, Tobit Sirach, are Deuterocanonical books preserved in the Roman Catholic Canon.

·        Their discovery among the Dead Sea Scrolls showcases the Jewish origins of these texts.

Legislative documents

·        The Dead Sea Scrolls consist of unique content from the Qumran community divided into three main categories: legislative documents, hymns, and Biblical texts.

·        Legislative documents from Qumran showcase the community's strict adherence to biblical laws along with their own regulations.

·        The Manual of Discipline outlines the distinct practices of the group.

·        The Damascus document specifies the ritual practices of the Sect’s opponents in Jerusalem.

·        The War Scroll illustrates the community's apocalyptic beliefs, detailing the conflict between "The Sons of Light" and "The Sons of Darkness," and includes instructions for a prophesied 40-year war.

·        The Temple Scroll revises Deuteronomic law and describes the Jerusalem temple.

·        Another document, 4QDeuteronomy, combines sections of Deuteronomy and Exodus to clarify Sabbath observance, community membership, and corresponding punishments for infractions.

Hymns and Biblical addition.

·        The Dead Sea Scrolls contain hymns likely recited by the community on special occasions.

·        The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice describe angelic classes and their worship over 13 consecutive Sabbaths, highlighting the solar calendar of the Qumran community.

·        An identical text to the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice was found at Masada (1965), suggesting the hymn travelled with those who took refuge at Masada when fleeing from the Roman invasion(1^st century CE).

·        Another document, the Thanksgiving Psalms (Hodayot), comprises about 25 hymns expressing gratitude, starting with "Odesha Adonai" (Thank you, my Lord).

·        Scholars believe these hymns served as prayers and songs of praise for specific days and times.

·        according to the Qumran Prayer Esther Chazon, the authors of some of the Hodayot  Even claimed to be among angels and included prayers (like Kedushah) that echoed biblical angelic worship narratives.

·        Biblical embellishments at Qumran took on two forms such as pseudepigraphal texts that claimed biblical authorship. An example is the Genesis Apocryphon, narrated from Lamech's perspective, enhancing the stories of Noah and Abraham, written in Aramaic.

·        Pesharim are biblical texts discovered at Qumran.

·        They reinterpret writings from the Prophets.

·        Each verse is followed by an interpretation relevant to the Qumran community's time.

·        For example, a pesher connects Habakkuk’s "arrogant man" (Habakkuk 2:5) with the Romans (Kittim) as a contemporary adversary.

The Community of Qumran

·        At first, scholars thought the Qumran community was linked to the Essenes, a group mentioned by 1st century writers such as Josephus, Philo, and Pliny the Elder.

·        Josephus' writings (described in Wars) describe the Essenes as religious, communal, ascetic, celibate, and possessing apocalyptic beliefs.

·        This description aligned with the characteristics of the Qumran community.

·        Historians regard the Qumran texts as significant historical writings.

·        After the publication of all 930 scrolls, Scholars no longer believe the Qumran sect was the same group as the Essenes described by Josephus.

·        The Dead Sea Scrolls reference roles such as 'female elders', 'Mothers', 'Sisters', and 'daughters'.

·        In contrast, there were no recognized women leaders in Essene communities.

·        The group associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls identified as Yaschad (unity) or Bnei Zadok (children/sons of Zadok), not as Essenes.

·        The Dead Sea Scrolls are the earliest Jewish documents and affirm the durability of the Jewish faith.

·        They reflect a diverse range of sacred texts within ancient Judaism, predating rabbinic canonization.

·        Research on the Dead Sea Scrolls is ongoing and still developing.

·        In 2004, fragments of Leviticus 23 and 24 were discovered at Qumran.

·        In September 2007, a tunnel from Jerusalem to Qumran was found, indicating that scrolls and temple treasures were hidden from Roman destruction.

·        Radiocarbon dating and DNA testing are being used to determine the scrolls' age more accurately.

·        The Dead Sea Scrolls are currently housed in the Shrine of the Book at Jerusalem's Israel Museum.

Jewish Sects: In the Second Temple period

 Defining Sectarianism.

·        A notable development in Hasmonean times was the emergence Of identifiable religious sects.

Modern denominationalism.

·        The term "sect" typically refers to Christian groups that separated from mainstream churches for ideological reasons.

·        Only the Essenes of Qumran fit this definition historically in the Second Temple period.

·        Other groups, such as the Pharisees, Sadducees, Hasidians, Sicarii (Maccabean days), and early Christians, operated within Jerusalem and Judea without necessarily opposing the religious establishment.

·        Therefore, the term "sect" may not accurately reflect the historical context, but it is used for convenience and universally recognized in reference to these groups.

When did Second Temple sect begin?

·        The emergence of Second Temple sects is traced back to the Hasmonean era in the 2nd century BCE, when the number of sects solidified.

·        Some scholars propose that proto-sects may have existed in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, but this is speculative without solid evidence.

·        Josephus, a 1st century CE historian, was the first to mention these sects, noting their presence in the mid-2nd century.

·        The Qumran community, associated with the Essenes, became a significant sectarian center during the later half of this era.

Why did sects form?

·        Religious sectarianism was unique in ancient Judaism, with no comparable range of organized sects before the 2nd century BCE or after 70 CE.

·        The crystallization of these sects occurred under the Hasmoneans, making it a distinctive development in Jewish history.

·        The mid-2nd century BCE presented historical circumstances conducive to the emergence of religious sects.

·        This period was marked by significant transition and upheaval, as Jewish society faced pressures from Hellenism.

·        The transformation of Jerusalem into a polis in 175 BCE further exemplified the challenges and changes occurring within Jewish culture.

Jewish sects: in the second temple period (Time of Yeshua)

·        Following the persecutions by Antiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BCE), Jews were forced to abandon key practices and adopt Greek ways.

·        Antiochus IV consecrated the Temple to Zeus.

·        The emergence of the Hasmonean society was met with mixed reactions:

o   Many viewed it with exhilaration and pride.

o   Others experienced disdain and disillusionment.

·        Urbanization and Hellenistic influences may have alienated some individuals under the Hasmoneans.

·        Increased urbanization made it difficult to uphold traditional practices.

·        The Hasmoneans' usurpation of the high priesthood and their problematic behavior contributed to discontent.

·        Ambitious military designs and centralized authority created tension within the society.

·        The combination of political and religious roles among the Hasmoneans altered the power dynamics.

·        A vigorous anti-gentile policy may have further estranged certain groups.

·        These factors likely contributed to the emergence of alternative religious sects, with notable differences among them.

Many sects in the city of Jerusalem

·        Jerusalem was the central hub of significant sectarian activity.

·        The Sadducees were based in the city due to their roles as priests involved in Temple affairs.

·        The Pharisees were also well represented in Jerusalem during this time.

·        There was a notable struggle between the Pharisees and Sadducees, indicating the prominence of both groups.

·        Although primarily located in the Judean Desert, the Essenes also maintained a presence in Jerusalem and throughout the country.

Commonalities among the Sects

·        The sects in Hasmonean Jerusalem shared various characteristics but differed significantly as well.

·        All groups operated as voluntary frameworks for individuals seeking religious messages and inspiration.

·        People often became acquainted with multiple sects, exposing themselves to different religious figures and teachings.

·        The groups were not uniform or large in number; not all priests were part of the Sadducees or Essenes, and not all Essenes were priests.

·        Early Pharisees did not belong to a specific social trade, yet most members, especially leaders, came from established social, economic, and religious classes in Jerusalem.

·        The prominence of Sadducees and Pharisees in John Hyrcanus' court (134-104 BCE) illustrates this connection.

Jewish sects: in the second temple period

·        During Herod's rule (37 to 4 BCE), the Pharisees numbered around 6,000.

·        In the 1st century, the Essenes had approximately 4,000 members.

·        The Essenes' communal site at Qumran could accommodate roughly 200 members at one time, indicating their size.

·        The Sadducees were even fewer in number.

·        Josephus's remarks from the 1st century CE are applicable to the Hasmonean era.

Identity, purity and boundaries.

·        Choosing to belong to a particular sect established personal and collective identity against others.

·        Each sect created barriers to separate its members from other sects, ordinary Jews, and non-Jews.

·        This social separation was rigorously mandated and articulated in various ways.

·        The Essenes in Qumran exemplified extreme separation, enforcing strict entry guidelines and harsh punishments for rule violations to maintain communal standards.

·        The Pharisees also aimed to separate themselves, especially regarding membership and purity laws in the community (havurah), distancing from ‘am ha-aret (ordinary Jews).

·        Both the Essenes and Pharisees used strict observance of purity rules to retain their boundaries.

·        The need for constant purification was emphasized, with Miqva’ot (ritual baths) being significant in Essene practices.

·        Daily rituals included immersion before communal meals, reflecting their adherence to purity regulations, which often limited social interaction with outsiders.

Law and study

·        The publication of halachic scrolls has highlighted the importance of Jewish law in defining sects, as seen in rabbinic literature.

·        Legal matters, alongside theological issues, play a crucial role in distinguishing these groups.

·        A common feature among these sects is the emphasis on Torah study.

·        The Pharisees are noted for their exceptional knowledge of the Law, as reflected in the Mishnah Avot and Josephus's writings.

·        At Qumran, Torah study was a continuous activity throughout the day and night.

Back to the scriptures: Torah History

·        The Jewish nation has made significant sacrifices to preserve the sanctity of the Torah and Scriptures.

·        There is ongoing controversy within Christianity regarding Torah observance.

·        Scriptures are considered living and inspired by YHVH.

·        It is important to understand Torah history and the Hebrew relationship with God’s Word.

The Jewish Bible: Sacred texts (Kitvei Kodesh)

·        The Temple in Jerusalem, referred to as the "mikdash" (holy place), contained the "kodesh" (holy area).

·        Within the "kodesh" was the "kodesh ha‘kodashim" (Holy of Holies), where the Ark of the Covenant was kept, containing the Ten Commandments inscribed using the Biblical metaphor “with Gods own finger”.

·        Jewish texts possess holiness in both their form and content.

·        Books are handled delicately; Rabbinic law forbids touching Biblical parchment with bare hands.

·        The Torah is adorned with wrappings and ornaments, reflecting royal significance.

·        Jews traditionally face the Torah during its procession as a sign of respect.

·        Different books have varying levels of sanctity, influencing which can be stacked on top of others.

·        The Torah is regarded as the pre-eminent sacred text and is viewed as perfect.

·        Every letter of the Torah is invested with meaning, which is attributed to its author.

·        Rabbinic tradition suggests that even the crowns on the letters hold significance (Babylonian Talmud Menachot 59b).

·        The holiness of the Torah arises from the significance of its words, where even minor details can hold deep meaning.

·        Close reading has been applied to the Mishnah and Siddur, reflecting their sanctity.

·        Jewish texts are recognized for their injunctions that command certain behaviors, which are viewed as normative among Jews, varying by community.

·        Jewish literature is often divided into two main categories:

·        Halachah: Refers to Jewish law and behavior, understood as the "going" or "path."

·        Aggadah: Refers to narrative aspects, meaning attributed to behaviors.

·        Neither Halachah nor Aggadah is regarded as having greater sanctity; they are mutually reinforcing.

·        New meanings enhance behaviors, while adherence to behaviors and beliefs in their meanings strengthen the overall sense of sanctity in the texts.

·        n Judaism, sacred texts are primarily studied rather than read.

·        Texts are treated with normative force, giving even minor details significant meaning.

·        The term "reading" is often replaced by "reciting" when referring to Torah.

·        Studying Torah is a slow, meticulous process that tracks the evolution of ideas across generations.

·        This approach allows for a deep understanding of the sanctity of God's words and their connections within the text.

·        Studying Torah is a slow and intricate process that involves tracking ideas across generations of text, almost like retracing footnotes and connections.

·        Torah is defined broadly, encompassing all conversations generated by studying the written Torah. This study is valuable not only for observing the Torah but also for its intrinsic worth.

·        The Sages believe that Torah study merits its own rewards, such as:

·        Long life

·        Protection from danger and suffering

·        Forgiveness for sins

·        The greatest reward of Torah study is the engagement in the process itself, which uncovers the sanctity carried by the words and ideas of the text.

Making of a copy of Torah - a revelation.

·         The making of the Torah exemplifies the typology of the Redeemer Yeshua.

·        Creating an original copy of the Torah took 4 to 5 years.

·        It was handwritten by a skilled scribe on around 80 sheets of lambskin.

·        The lambskin was soaked in water, and all hair was removed to create a smooth writing surface.

·        Once dry, the skin was stretched on a wooden frame.

·        After drying, it was cut into rectangular sheets for writing.

·        The scribe used a stylus to draw lines on the lambskin, similar to the appearance of running a nail along paper.

·        Ink was freshly prepared each day by mixing powdered gall nuts, copper sulphate crystals, gum Arabic, and water.

·        The scribe wrote each letter of the Torah one at a time using a quill while singing out the letter to avoid mistakes.

·        If a mistake occurred, the entire scroll was discarded, and the scribe would start the writing process from scratch.

·        The pages of the Torah were made from lambskin and sewn together using lamb sinews called "giddin".

·        Once completed, the scroll was attached to wooden rollers known as "Etzei Chayim", which means "Trees of Life" in Hebrew.

·        This symbolizes that the Torah reflects Yeshua, the Lamb of YHVH.

·        The physical Torah was a "striped and pierced lamb hanging on the tree of life".

·        Ultimately, the Torah represents Yeshua, who is the Word of YHVH and the groom who sacrificed Himself for His bride.

·        The Torah, given by YHVH to Moses at Mount Sinai, foreshadows the coming of the Messiah.

·        It represents an introduction of the Messiah to the world.

·        YHVH arranged a marital covenant with His people by giving the Torah to Moses.

·        The Torah is a representation of the groom, identified as the Lamb of YHVH.

·        John 1:1 states, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."

·        John 1:14 adds, "The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us, and we have seen his glory—the glory of the one and only Son who came from the Father, full of grace and truth."

·        The Torah represents YHVH's instructions, protection, and teaching.

·        The Torah itself is not revoked.

·        Yeshua demonstrated how to live according to the Torah without human traditions and opinions.

·        Yeshua is regarded as the living Torah.