Lecture Slides Wk2

Page 1: Introduction

• Institution Name: Curtin University of Technology

• Subject: Science and Professional Practice in Psychology

• Copyright Notice: Material used under Commonwealth of Australia Copyright Regulation 1969.

Page 2: Empiricism in Science

• Definition:

  • Empiricism: A fundamental part of the scientific method.

  • Originated from philosophical thinkers such as Vaisheshika, Aristotle, Bacon, Locke, Hume, Descartes.

• Key Concepts:

  • Hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations.

  • Importance of empirical research (experiments and validated measurement tools).

  • Quote: "You can observe a lot just by watching" (Yogi Bear).

• Observation:

  • Must be systematic and theory-driven; not random.

  • Structured observation enhances understanding of the world (Stanovich, 2010).

Page 3: Impact of Empiricism on Psychology

• Historical Figures:

  • Rise of empiricism linked to experiments by Skinner and Thorndike.

  • Focus on observable behavior (e.g., Skinner’s Box and Thorndike’s Puzzle Box).

• Shift in Focus:

  • Moved from non-quantifiable processes to sophisticated behavioral measures.

  • Wilhelm Wundt:

    • Known as the founding father of experimental psychology; established the first lab in Leipzig, Germany.

    • Specialized in psycholinguistics and introspection.

Page 4: Behavioral Psychology

• William James:

  • American psychologist associated with behaviorism, taught at Harvard, and focused on functionalism.

  • Disagreed with Wundt about the scientific study of the mind.

• Edward Thorndike:

  • Emphasized learning as an automatic, incremental process seen in all animals (including humans).

  • Developed "Law of Effect"—reinforcement strengthens associations.

• B.F. Skinner:

  • Developed behaviorism and emphasized environmental influence on behavior, neglecting private events like thoughts or feelings.

  • Conducted experiments to understand learning (e.g., Project Pigeon).

Page 5: Ensuring Empiricism

• Principles for Empirical Psychology:

  • Well-designed studies: experimental and correlational.

  • Clear hypotheses: Testable and defined variables.

  • Established measures and appropriate sample sizes.

• Operational Definitions:

  • Process of defining concepts so they can be measured appropriately (e.g., IQ through WAIS-IV or symptoms of depression).

Page 6: Reliability and Validity

• Reliability:

  • Consistency of measurements over time (test-retest, inter-rater reliability).

  • Internal reliability assessed via statistics (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha).

• Validity:

  • Accuracy of measurement: are we truly measuring what we aim to?

  • Different types of reliability and validity will be discussed later.

• Examples:

  • Bathroom scales to measure IQ: High reliability, low validity (inappropriate measurement).

Page 7: Scientific Theory Structure

• Scientific Theory:

  • Created to explain and predict phenomena.

  • Must describe observations and make predictions about future results.

Page 8: Provisional Nature of Theories

• Quote from Stephen Hawking:

  • Theories are provisional; a single contradictory observation can disprove a theory.

• Importance of Falsifiability:

  • A theory must allow for predictions to be proven false.

  • Example: All swans being white.

Page 9: Criteria of Falsifiability

• Falsifiability Concept:

  • Based on classical logic (Modus Tollens).

  • Theories must specify predictions that can be shown to be either true or false.

• Characteristics:

  • Hypothèse should state specific outcomes.

  • Theories evolve based on new evidence.

Page 10: Freud and Falsifiability

• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939):

  • Made significant contributions to developmental psychology, personality, and psychoanalysis.

• Criticism of Freud’s Theories:

  • Lack of predictive ability and usefulness.

  • Non-falsifiable ideas limit scientific testing.

Page 11: Verifiability in Science

• Verifiability Doctrine:

  • Science is public and must be testable by others.

  • C. Hempel's assertion on empirical testing.

• Principles:

  • Transparency in methodologies and findings increases credibility.

Page 12: The Peer Review Process

• Peer Review Importance:

  • Articles undergo scrutiny by other scientists before publication.

  • Open access promotes accessible scientific communication.

• Example:

  • Critique on "Custard therapy for manic depression" highlights peer review’s necessity.

Page 13: Importance of Replication

• Replication in Research:

  • Consistency in obtaining results is vital for scientific validity.

  • Examples of studies documenting replication efforts.

Page 14: Wakefield Case - A Cautionary Tale

• Wakefield’s Study:

  • Published flawed research linking MMR vaccine to autism.

  • Resulted in public health crisis over vaccine refusal.

• Consequences:

  • Retraction of findings and detrimental impacts on vaccination rates.

Page 15: Examples of Scientific Misconduct

• Notable Cases:

  • Instances of serious ethical breaches in scientific research worldwide.

  • Emphasis on the importance of peer review and replication in maintaining scientific integrity.

Page 16: The Scientific Method

• Definition:

  • A structured procedure in natural science characterized by observation and experimentation leading to hypothesis testing.

Page 17: The Research Process

• Stages in Research:

  • Observations lead to questions, testable predictions, and experimentation for hypothesis modification.

Page 18: Theory Development in Psychology

• Ongoing Process:

  • Proposal of theories, deriving predictions, collecting empirical data, verifying results, modifying theories as needed.

Page 19: Science-Practitioner Model

• Model Description:

  • Integrates scientific knowledge with psychological practice, emphasizing evidence-based practices.

Page 20: Applications of the Science-Practitioner Model

• Real-world Uses:

  • Applied by various psychologist disciplines to enhance practice with verified methods.

Page 21: Conclusion on Scientific Knowledge

• Key Insights:

  • Scientific knowledge must be empirical, falsifiable, and verifiable.

  • An understanding of these principles strengthens the integrity of psychological science.