Meanings of Difference (lecture 3)

THE MEANINGS OF DIFFERENCE

TWO TRAINS OF THOUGHT

• Similarities tradition

• Differences tradition

• Similarities hypothesis (Hyde, 2014): Suggests that women and men are overall more similar than different, with some differences in psychological dimensions and abilities.

DEFINING DIFFERENCE AND SIMILARITY

• Despite a century of research, no evidence of a single psychological trait or cognitive ability on which men and women are completely different.

• Mean differences do not account for variability in individuals.

• Statistical significance does not guarantee usefulness in predicting actual behavior.

• Intersectionality: Recognizing overlapping social identities and related systems of oppression.

MEASURING DIFFERENCES

• An over-emphasis on difference in psychological testing.

• Journals typically favor publishing findings of gender differences over similarities.

• Lack of statistically significant differences does not imply absence of any differences.

SOURCES OF BIAS IN GENDER RESEARCH

• The most persistent bias in gender research is confounding variables: Effects of multiple variables are mixed, making it difficult to determine the true cause of effects.

META-ANALYSIS

• Involves quantitative methods to summarize results from various studies.

• Requires a common unit of measurement.

• Analyzes the magnitude and consistency of results.

• Moderator variable: Interacts with another variable to alter its effect.

• Effect size: Indicates the strength of a relationship or difference.

• Cannot conclusively determine causality.

VALUES AND IDEOLOGY IN RESEARCH

• Personal values and beliefs significantly influence research outcomes regarding gender.

• Confirmation bias: Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

• History of Western research has often assumed women's inferiority.

• Variability hypothesis: Proposes that more men are found at the extremes of behaviors, creating an impression of greater variability.

“GIRLS CAN’T DO MATH”

• Consistent gender differences identified in advanced mathematics performance across ethnicities.

• Girls tend to outperform boys in school achievement metrics.

• The gap in gender differences concerning mathematics is closing.

FACTORS INFLUENCING MATH PERFORMANCE

• No evidence supports biologically based cognitive differences in math ability.

• Brain activity patterns during math tasks are indistinguishable between genders.

• Autonomy and rational thought traditionally attributed to men perpetuates stereotypes of male superiority in math/science.

• Girls often exhibit lower self-confidence in math by fifth grade despite equal performance—a consequence of internalized attitudes and educational choices.

STEREOTYPE THREAT

• Awareness of negative stereotypes can lead to performance anxiety, hindering achievement.

• Multiple stereotype threats exist, affecting varying demographics.

• Strategies to alleviate stereotype threat:

  • Educate women about stereotype threat.

  • Counter negative stereotypes with positive affirmations.

  • Remind women of diverse aspects of their identity.

  • Provide positive counterexamples to stereotypes.

STUDIES

• Spencer et al., 1999:

  • Hard math test showed that when informed that performance was equal, both genders scored equally; when informed men do better, men excelled.

  • Women performed worse when outnumbered in testing conditions.

• Neuville & Croizet, 2007:

  • Study with 7-8 year old students revealed that girls in experimental group (depicting traditional gender roles) performed worse in math.

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF GENDERED COGNITION

• Greater focus needed on intellectual development for girls through diverse educational practices.

• Under-prediction effect compromises women's educational opportunities leading to rejections from institutions and financial aid losses.

CONTINUED EXCLUSION OF MINORITY GROUPS IN CAREERS

• Statistics from 2019 on women in various professional fields:

  • Biology: 47.7%

  • Chemists: 42.5%

  • Environmental scientists: 33.0%

  • Computer programmers: 20.3% (decrease from 2015)

  • Industrial engineers: 24.3%

  • Chemical engineers: 14.4% (decrease from 2015)

  • Civil engineers: 13.9%

  • Electrical engineers: 11.6% (decrease from 2015)

  • Mechanical engineers: 6.6% (decrease from 8.3% in 2015)

STEM WORKFORCE (Ages 18-74) by Sex, Ethnicity, and Disability Status

• Trends from 2011 to 2021 indicate demographic shifts in workforce representation.

  • Total Male, Female, White, Asian, Other, Hispanic, African American representation analyzed across years.

MALE VS. FEMALE EMOTIONS

• Traditional gender norms shape emotional expression.

GENDERING EMOTION: "BOYS DON'T CRY"

• Emotion Stereotypes:

  • Male Emotions: Anger, Contempt, Pride

  • Female Emotions: Awe, Disgust, Distress, etc.

  • Gender-Neutral Emotions: Include Amusement, Interest, Fear, etc.

GENDERING EMOTIONS

• Men and women differ in emotional expression and recognition, with women scoring higher in emotional intelligence, albeit with small effect sizes.

CULTURE, ETHNICITY, AND EMOTIONALITY - EXPRESSING EMOTIONS

• Emotional expression is predominantly universal but influenced by cultural norms.

• Display rules: Norms dictating when, how, and which emotions are expressed.

• Variations exist across cultural subgroups in emotional expression norms.

CULTURE, ETHNICITY, AND EMOTIONALITY - EXPERIENCING EMOTION

• Distinction between independent self versus interdependent self, affecting emotional expression and experience across cultures.

• Smaller gender differences in collectivist societies compared to individualistic ones.

EMOTIONALITY AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

• Children learn emotional display rules through parental guidance.

• Social environments dictate the consequences of emotional expression based on gender.

• Girls are socialized to suppress negative emotions early on.

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF GENDERED EMOTIONALITY

• Emotional expression is linked to power dynamics and professional roles.

• Implications of self-fulfilling prophecies based on emotional expressions.

EMOTIONS AND RELATIONSHIP CONFLICT

• Social expectations regarding conflict mediation in relationships often fall on women.

• Men expressing anger may use it demonstratively, affecting relationship dynamics.

• Emotionally restricted men report a lower quality of life.

TL;DR

• There are significantly more similarities than differences between men and women.

• There exists greater variability within each sex compared to differences between the sexes.