HZT4U - Unit 1 - Foundational Matters
Inclusive of vocabulary words #1-13
Philosophy
Philosophy - The love of wisdom
Philo- - To love, as in to be joined with and delighted by
-sophy - Wisdom
Philosophy is comprised of both content and method
Content - The deep matters in philosophy, whose questions and laws offer points to be considered
Method - The rational investigation, comprised of arguing and reasoning, that attempts to discern the content of philosophy
Truth
Radical Relativism - The truth of a belief is relative to a person’s belief, should the person sincerely hold it, allowing the truth to change from person to person on a matter of differing beliefs
Supported by people who believe they can think and feel the truth, though their beliefs may not be in accordance with reality
Cultural Relativism - The truth of a belief is relative to what the majority of a culture holds as a belief, allowing the truth to change between cultures, both geographically and historically
Following this stance, the truth at any given moment can be ascertained by a poll that determines the position of the majority
It also denies the possibility of progress, because if no belief can be objectively true throughout space and time, then any form of societal, moral, or scientific progress would simply be replacing one truth with an equally valuable truth
Religions and morals become non-binding matters of preference, given that all lifestyles and beliefs are seen to be equally true, which can lead to a lack of purpose and futility
If there is no objective truth, then knowledge becomes meaningless, as its content can be changed according to one person or culture
While evidence can support and discover a truth, it can also be limited or inconclusive, meaning it does not necessarily confirm a truth
Conformity Theory of Truth - The truth is what conforms to reality, and any beliefs that align with that reality are therefore true
Reality is what is
A true belief entails that the mind joins reality and is in accordance with being
If a belief does not conform to reality, it is false
Logic
Deductive Argumentation - Argumentation that uses premises to demonstrate the truth of conclusions with certainty
Inductive Argumentation - Argumentation that uses premises to assume a probable or likely truth of the conclusion, though it is not certain
Inductive Generalization - Argumentation that observes the specific premises, and makes a general conclusion or future prediction that is likely true
Abduction - Argumentation that offers the best probable explanation or hypothesis given a set of premises
Often, the best logical explanation is one that is predictable, coherent, simple, and fruitful
Argument - A premise or premises that support the truth of a conclusion
Premise - The claim or assertation that is used to justify, prove, or secure the truth of a conclusion
Conclusion - The thesis that one demonstrates or proves true through premises
Logic assesses the validity of an argument, which can be determined if the truth of the conclusion follows necessarily from the truth of the premises
Valid Argument - An argument where the truth of the conclusion must follow from the premises, where it is impossible to be false, should the truth of the premises be assumed
The conclusion is inescapable
Invalid Argument - An argument where the truth of the conclusion cannot certainly follow from the premises, meaning it can possibly be false, should the truth of the premises be assumed
The soundness of an argument can be established by determining - not just assuming - the truth of the premises
Sound Argument - A valid argument that has true premises, meaning the conclusion is definitively proven true
Unsound Argument - An invalid argument, regardless of the truth of the premises, or a valid argument with false premises, which fail to prove the truth of the conclusion
Aristotelian Syllogism - All Ps are Qs. X is a P. Therefore, X is Q.
Modus Ponens - If P, then Q. P. Therefore, Q.
Modus Tollens - If P, then Q. Not Q. Therefore, not P.
Logical Fallacy - Informal logic, or an err in reasoning, that makes an argument invalid, unsound, or irrelevant
Ad Hominem - To the person; attacking the character of a person or a group in an attempt to negate a belief held by that party
This is often invalid or irrelevant to supporting the truth of the conclusion
Appeal to the Majority - Using a majority’s acceptance of a belief to render it true
This follows a relativistic view, which calls into question the truth of the premise, rendering an argument either unsound or invalid
Begging the Question - Using the conclusion of a belief as a premise to support the same belief
This adds no valid and valuable premises to support the truth of the conclusion beyond itself
Confusing Correlation with Causation - Believing that because X and Y have a correlation, they must be directly related through causation
This ignores any other variables, meaning the truth of the conclusion does not inescapably follow
Appeal to Authority - Using an authoritative figure supporting a belief to show that it is true
This can invalidate an argument because something is not necessarily true just because someone in a position of authority said so
Appeal to Disagreement - Claiming an absence of a truth or the futility of searching for one because there is a disagreement or debate on the matter
This is relativistic in nature, claiming that there cannot be an objective and understandable truth because people cannot agree on it
Appeal to Offense - Taking the offense that one belief may cause as evidence that it cannot be true
This uses an irrelevant premise to try to support the conclusion
Genetic Fallacy - Using a belief’s origin to negate the belief as true due to a lack of evidence
This fails to recognize that having a certain origin does not necessarily cause there to be a lack of evidence, meaning the conclusion can still possibly be true, no matter how unusual its conception was
Straw Man - Creating an argument against an exaggerated, flawed, or weak position that shares similarities with a certain belief, and then concluding that the certain belief must also be false
This is irrelevant because it does not address the actual belief it is arguing against - it instead takes down a caricature that is clearly flawed, which no one likely holds
False Dichotomy - Offering an “either…or” statement that does not truly represent all the real possibilities, thus making it false
The premises of this argument are unsound, because there are not only two possibilities that can occur, though it is presented in that manner
Philosophy and Theology - Jacques Maritain
*Jacques Maritain wrote on theology and philosophy in the historical context of a predominantly Christian society, which has already accepted God and revelation to be true
Philosophy - The use of human reason to understand humanity and reality, and act according to it; the highest human discipline because, as the foundation of thought, it can judge the other human sciences
Natural Theology - What humans can know about God through reason alone; a focus of philosophy
It is based on philosophical human reason
The nature and existence of God can be contemplated using human reason alone, but it cannot discover mysteries and dogmas of faith
(Supernatural) Theology - The use of human reason and revelation from God to understand Him and all things related to Him; the highest discipline without qualification because, as it is derived from God, the highest and most divine power, it should have the greater authority, significance, and truth
Revelation - What God has revealed to humanity, through Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition, and the Magisterium
Should we reason that there be a higher, more powerful God with natural theology, it follows then that any knowledge imparted by God should be higher and more powerful than the knowledge humans can acquire on our own
Humans are often limited in understanding and reason, and aspects of the faith, such as mysteries and dogmas, are beyond our reasoning
Theology judges philosophy because it is a higher discipline, meaning principles of philosophy should conform to the divinely-originated, and thus superior, principles of theology
Theology serves as a guiding force for philosophy
As a negative norm or government
Theology, because it is a higher and more authoritative truth, can reject matters of philosophy that contradict it
If they are in contradiction, then the theology must take precedent
Philosophy is self-supported, as it can achieve its own conclusions of reason through reason alone
It therefore does not need positive government from theology because if reason can prove something to be true, it must be true, so long as it does not contradict the faith
A philosophical impetus
When matters of revelation are accepted, it opens new branches of thought that could not have been accessible to human reason alone
This furthers philosophy and thought as a whole
As a lived reality
Theology imparts virtues, such as humility, patience, and courage, on those who believe
These qualities make a much more apt philosopher who can have the proper state of mind to approach thinking and reality
According to Augustine, pride, impatience, and cowardice prevent philosophy and philosophers from improving
Philosophy serves as an instrument of theology
It supports and confirms the praembula fidei
Using reason, philosophy can make certain the matters of theology, such as the existence of God and a human soul
It clarifies mysteries of the faith
Philosophy can make sense of theological matters, such as the sacraments and the Holy Trinity
It responds to objections of the faith
Using reason, philosophy can counter things contrary to what theology teaches
Because philosophy exists as a distinct discipline utilizing human reason alone, revelation cannot be used as a premise
Furthermore, the existence of theology does not negate the discipline of philosophy - both are necessary to understand the natures of the universe
Universities and Knowledge - John Henry Cardinal Newman
University - A place in which all disciplines are turned into a unified vision of the whole
“uni-” = oneness
“-vers” = to turn against or bring together
The essence of a university is the intellectual forming through diffusion and extension of knowledge onto students
It is not to advance knowledge through research and innovation - that is reserved for academies, where one can be devoted to gaining knowledge without needing to expend energy teaching it to students
Researchers and thinkers need silence and tranquility to be free from distractions
The Church maintains the integrity of the universities
It does not care so much about knowledge, as it does the intellectual cultivation of its followers
Knowledge and reason serve both humans and Faith
The Truth is important to know, as it supports the Faith
Educated and well-thought people can serve society better
It is a moral obligation to uphold the truth
The advantage of a university is the culture of the intellect
Universities can exercise and refine the mind
It does involve the “characteristic excellences of a gentleman”
Youth are often rash, overconfident, immoderate, and lack any discriminating convictions
Education is needed to prevent people from being childish and foolishly ignorant
To prevent those who contradict themselves, falsely believe they know everything, or obstinately prejudiced
It makes people sensible, reasonable, and consistent in their views
It can lead to wisdom, speculation, aptitude in many disciplines
A good education would prevent minds from becoming susceptible to the surplus of incorrect or misleading information
It also gives Christians the capacity to understand and defend their faith
It begins with basic philosophical concepts, such as science, order, rule and harmony, which form the mind to be capable of higher and more complex thought
There is such a demand for a surplus of new information that deep thought is ignored, instead favouring “extempore philosophy”
This is an evil that dilutes the intellectual sphere and dissuades man from wanting to truly understand a matter
Good thoughts take a long time to cultivate, but they are incredibly valuable
The liberal arts are meant to free us from ignorance by incorporating many disciplines and showing how they are all a part of the whole truth
This leads to freedom, equitableness, calmness, moderation, and wisdom
Knowledge is an end in itself
It is a valuable tool, but it is also important to know things for the sake of being knowledgeable, rather than ignorant
Humans should desire to know
Holding knowledge makes us want to learn more
Intrinsic Good - Something that is valuable for its own sake
Ex. friendship, love, art
Instrumental Good - Something that has value for serving a purpose
Ex. money
Most things that are intrinsically good also serve some instrumental purpose
Knowledge and the “I” - Soren Kierkegaard
Kierkegaard says the purpose of knowledge is to find his truth, and to find the idea for which he can live and die
“What is truth but to live for an idea?”
In this view, knowledge is held as an instrumental good, like a compass to guide one’s life, to achieve deeper personal satisfaction
He must find an application for truth and knowledge in his life to satisfy his soul
When one finds the truth of life, one’s life must align with said truth
Finding a personal truth and conviction is what is needed to live a complete human life
Inward action in man is his divine side
Knowledge for knowledge’s sake is a good thing, but it also needs to have direction to bear a profound mark on life
Humans must internally know themselves before seeking external information
Within oneself is the truth, purpose, and meaning of one’s life
From there, with a certain foundation, humans can consider the outside world
If there is no clear motivation from within, life becomes disharmonious
We must determine ourselves through individual thought
Kierkegaard separates himself from his peers because they choose to not think deeply or define their truth
Their way of life is not indicative of a harmonious one that seeks spiritually nourishing things, so Kierkegaard removes their influence
An “I” in a deeper sense
When a child defines himself as an “I,” it is a sign of self-awareness
The child becomes aware that he is his own being, separate from every other thing
The child determines themselves on a basic level
Kierkegaard similarly wishes to determine himself once more, but beyond the separation made in early childhood
He wants to achieve an intellectual and spiritual individuality
In other words, Kierkegaard wishes to think for himself
He recognizes that he is separate both physically, and intellectually
He must determine his thoughts, purpose, and meaning for himself
To go along with society uncritically would be rejecting this deeper aspect of humanity that permits him to even think at all
It is not an immediate separation - one must continue to think and reflect to understand oneself, and achieve a deeper sense of self that leads to enlightenment and fulfillment
Diversion and Thought - Blaise Pascal
We, so frequently occupied by diversions, often have difficulties facing our own thoughts in silence
Thoughts and feelings carry weight, and it becomes difficult to bear for those who do not exercise their ability to think deeply
We are weak and mortal
When we actually consider our lives, we can recognize suffering and our inevitable deaths
It becomes easier, then, to escape into distractions, rather than face our miserable plights
The escape, however, is purely superficial
Avoiding thinking deeply will not prevent suffering or death, but it will rob us of the self-contemplation our nature demands, which diminishes the meaning we can derive from our lives
The world promotes constant things - buying things, doing things, watching things, but it does not promote self-reflection, silence, and thought
We have become indoctrinated into relying on these distractions, and choosing them over fulfilling pursuits
“Thought constitues the greatness of man.”
Human dignity and merit comes from thought
Thinking is what sets humans apart from other animals - it makes our perceptions into thoughts and ideas, reactions into emotions and feelings, and our actions into work and purpose
To truly understand our lives, we must understand ourselves by which we exist, our creator from which we came, and our end to which we go
We are thinking reeds
We are fragile and easily destroyed - our physical existence does not make us significant or superior
However, we are aware of ourselves, and we contain the ability to think
Even if we were destroyed, we are aware of our own death
Our self-awareness and thought - our ability to actually contemplate our existence, instead of just living it - makes us superior to the universe that kills us
We must properly use our ability to think for its intended purpose, rather than wasting it
It is our very nature to think, so to not think would mean we are not living as true humans
“By thought I comprehend the World”
We can understand the universe on a level that all of the universe cannot
Philosophy removes the distractions and allows us to consider what it means to be human
Quantitative Greatness - Important significance attributed due to size, power, etc.
Qualitative Greatness - Important significance attributed due to the capacity to think
Independent Thought - Franz Jagerstatter and Sophie Scholl
We must read to develop one’s intellectual and religious development
Reading allows us to think for ourselves
Those who do not read, and thus do not think, will become playground balls that others kick around
They will have no autonomy or inner life, and will always be subject to an external will
Apology, Socrates, and the Socratic Challenge - Plato
Socrates had upset many people who then accused him of corrupting the youth, being an impious atheist for studying the world, and making the worse arguments appear as the stronger
He had garnered an unpopular reputation by calling out the hypocrisy, immoral actions, and ignorance of notable people
Meletus was among one of his accusers
Socrates determined himself to be wiser than others
Initially, he was in denial, and sought to find someone smarter than himself
However, after talking to poets, politicians, and craftsmen, he realized that they are all ignorant
This is the error of the powerful, the specialist, and the successful
Knowing that he knows nothing worthwhile, Socrates declares himself as wiser than others
Gadfly - One who challenges society and disrupts the status quo
Just as a gadfly would wake sleeping livestock, so does Socrates wake the morally asleep Athens
He wakens them from their complacency in err, and stings them by revealing their own ignorance
He believed he should be treated like a victor because he’s helped them so much
“The unexamined life is not worth living for men”
Normative Claim - A claim dictating how something should or ought to be
Examining one’s life involves asking deep questions and introspection
Our human lives have a telos in thought
Telos - A purpose or end
We are rational creatures with intellect and will
To not examine our lives is to not fulfill our humanity
If we do not fulfill our humanity, we are not good, because goodness comes from an object fulfilling its purpose
Examination gives life purpose and helps us understand the truth to which we should align ourselves with
Socrates challenges the Athenians to live on the plane of truth, goodness, and beauty - through an examined life - rather than on the plane of worldliness
A good life, according to Socrates, prioritizes the transcendentals over the worldliness and actualizes human potential
To reject a life ordered around the transcendentals is to reject humanity, and instead favour reputation, pleasure, and material wealth
Socrates was a resolute man who valued honesty and faith to his morals, conscience, and purpose
He maintains what is good, virtuous, wise, and just
He reproaches those who reject goodness
He lives by his divine purpose of examination and philosophy
He would die to protect his conscience and his loyalty to philosophy, wisdom, truth, and goodness