Research/ Theory

-       Context of research and theory in Criminology

Eras of Research

-       The Golden Age of Research 1900-1930. Gathering Crime data. This is happening without theory to guide the collection.

-       Golden Age of Theory 1930-1960. Creating theories to explain observations.

-       Extensive Theory Testing 1960 – Testing of the dominant theories.

-       Today- Attempts to integrate theories, more testing, use of tech.

Research- Applied and Pure

-       Applied research- Conducted with clear application or use in mind. Example. Kim Rossmo- 1990’s geographic profiling.

-       Pure research Is conducted to create knowledge, no direct application yet.

The Research Process

-       Identify a problem

-       Research design created to explore data collection.

-       Data collection

-       Analysis of the Data

Data Collection

-       Case study. In depth investigation into a person, group, organization, offers context.

-       Participant observations- problem of crossing the line. May lose objectivity.

Stanford Prison Experiment

-       Zimbardo 1971

Laud Humphreys

-       Tea Room Trade

-Research should inform policy

Classical School of Criminology- Crime as a choice

-       The Enlightenment- Age of Reason

-       Social Contract Theorists. Social contract- Gov are informed. Protect rights and people.

-       Hobbes- Negative view of humanity. Fear.

-       Locke- people are blank states.

-       Ceaser Beccaria- Focus on law and punishment. Purpose of punishment- There needs to be utility, something greater (deterrence). Punishment needs to be swift and certain and proportionate. Needs to outweigh the pleasure of the crime.

-       Jeremey Bentham. Looks at the individual. Every act has utility- seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

-       Hedonic Calculus- Much of what we do is driven by self-interest.

-       Panopticon Prison Design

Contributions of the Classical School

-       Rationality

-       Human Rights

-       Due Process

Critiques of classical school

-       Assumes rationality

-       Everyone is logical

-       How do you measure pleasure?

Utilitarianism

-       Consequences of actions, greater good for the most people.

-       Tyranny of the majority

-       Delema’s

The Prisoners Delema (Game Theory)

Golden Balls

The Neoclassical Perspective

-       Late 1970s/1980s

-       Blend the work of positivist criminology with classical.

-       Still focused on crime as choice but understand that not everyone has the same capacity.

-       Rebirth in response to rising crime.

-       Rally Cry- Robert Martinson. 1974- Survey of rehab programs. Success rate 5-15% “nothing works”

-       Have we been too soft on crime?

-       Build more prisons, sentence enhancement, return to the death penalty.

-       1990s- harsh punishment was the norm. 

Rational Choice Theory

-       Late 1970s

-       Criminals make at least a partially informed choice to engage in crime.

Routine Activities Theory

-       Crime can happen when these factors come together: a motivated offender, suitable target, lack of capable guardian.

Lifestyle Theory

-       Situational choice theory- offenders make choices without context.

Crime prevention- change the context, improve security.

-       Target hardening- Emphasis on cognition, less on pleasure.

Seductions of Crime

-       Jack Katz

-       Foreground forces- What does it feel like in the moment to engage in crime? Crime is attractive, seductive.

-       Crime is rewarding, powerful seducer.

Neoclassical Perspective

-       Critiques- Rational choice- life of chaos.

Tuesday, October 8^th

 Punishment

-       Neoclassical approach focuses on revenge to a degree- return to harsh punishment.

-       Just Deserts- Deserved punishment.

-       Modern terms- Deterrence is still important.

-       Specific Deterrence- Punishment to deter the individual.

-       General Deterrence- Punishment serves as an example to others (deter them).

-       Our justice system is complex.

-       We may all view punishment differently.

-       We have a high incarceration rate.

-       How does this impact the crime rate? – Should this punishment deter offenders?

-       Recidivism- Prisoners, those that reoffend.

-       1 year after release- 56% arrested.

-       3 years after release- 68%

-       5 years after release- 76%

Death Penalty

-       Arguments/ Pros/ Cons

-       Support arguments- Moral argument, just deserts. The only just punishment. Deterrence as the main argument for capital punishment. Is this logical? How do you measure this?

-       Regions- South Vs. North.

-       Still support despite this evidence- deterrence is not shown.

-       Incapacitation- the inability to commit crime.

Arguments against

-       Bias- class and race.

-       Class- Afford quality defense.

-       Race- Race of the defendant. Race of the Victim.

-       Prosecutorial discretion. There is never a mandatory death sentence.

-       Curtis Flowers 1997- Prosecutor misconduct. Striking black jurors. Six trials.

-       Mistakes/ flaws -Prosecutor misconduct/ system officials. Juries- composition. Eyewitness testimony/informants. Liebman Study- 68% error rate. Cost- Death penalty is cheaper. No, it is not cheaper- the process is costly. Attorney- capital defense. 2 attorneys. Pretrial motions, many more. Jury selection- much longer in capital defense. Trial itself is much longer in capital case, a two-part trial.  Housing, movement of the defendant. Automatic appeal. $2-$3 million per case.

-       The Focus on Individual Choice