Untitled Flashcards Set

Social Death: 

Orlando Patterson coined the term "social death" to describe the condition of enslaved people in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, highlighting their loss of identity, rights, and social ties. This concept emphasizes how enslaved individuals were stripped of legal personhood and excluded from society.

April 1, 1933 boycott: 

On April 1, 1933, the Nazi regime organized a nationwide boycott of Jewish-owned businesses in Germany, marking one of the first major acts of state-sponsored anti-Semitism. SA stormtroopers stood outside Jewish shops, doctors' offices, and law firms, intimidating customers and signaling the regime’s escalating persecution of Jews.

Nuremberg Laws (1935):

 The Nuremberg Laws, enacted in 1935 by the Nazi regime, stripped Jews of German citizenship and prohibited marriage or sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. These laws institutionalized racial discrimination and laid the legal groundwork for further persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany.

“Aryanization” of the economy:

 The "Aryanization" of the economy was a Nazi policy that involved forcibly transferring Jewish-owned businesses, property, and assets to non-Jewish Germans. This process, carried out through legal and economic pressure, aimed to exclude Jews from economic life and further their persecution.

The November 9-10, 1938 pogrom (aka Kristallnacht,“night of broken glass”): 

Kristallnacht, or the "Night of Broken Glass," was a violent pogrom carried out by the Nazis on November 9–10, 1938, targeting Jewish businesses, synagogues, and homes across Germany and Austria. Thousands of Jewish-owned properties were vandalized, hundreds of Jews were killed or arrested, and the event marked a significant escalation in the Nazi persecution of Jews.

functionalism (also called structuralism) versus intentionalism: 

The debate between functionalism (or structuralism) and intentionalism concerns the origins and implementation of the Holocaust. Functionalists argue that the Holocaust evolved gradually due to the chaotic structure of the Nazi government and bureaucratic competition, while intentionalists believe it was a premeditated plan driven by Hitler’s long-standing ideological goals.

Hitler Prophecy Speech

In his "Prophecy Speech" on January 30, 1939, Adolf Hitler warned that if war broke out, it would result in the "annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe." This speech signaled Hitler’s escalating rhetoric against Jews and was later used by the Nazis to justify the Holocaust as a so-called response to World War II.

Deportation: 

During the Holocaust, deportation referred to the forced removal of Jews and other targeted groups from their homes to ghettos, concentration camps, and extermination camps. These deportations, carried out by trains under brutal conditions, were a key step in the Nazis' plan for mass genocide.

Ghettos: 

During the Holocaust, ghettos were segregated, overcrowded urban areas where Jews were forcibly confined before deportation to concentration or extermination camps. These ghettos, often surrounded by walls or barbed wire, were marked by starvation, disease, and brutal living conditions as part of the Nazis' persecution.

Einsatzgruppen: 

The Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing units used by the Nazis during the Holocaust, responsible for mass shootings of Jews, Romani people, and others deemed undesirable. Operating primarily in Eastern Europe, these units followed the German army during their invasion and carried out systematic executions, contributing to the early stages of the Holocaust.

“special squads”: 

The "special squads" (or Sonderkommandos) were groups of Jewish prisoners forced to work in Nazi extermination camps, primarily handling the bodies of those killed in gas chambers. These prisoners were tasked with disposing of corpses, often under extreme duress, and were kept under constant threat of death to prevent them from revealing the atrocities being committed.

Nazi mobile: 

The Nazi mobile killing units, also known as Einsatzgruppen, were mobile death squads that followed the German army as it advanced through Eastern Europe during World War II. These squads were responsible for mass shootings of Jews, Romani people, Soviet POWs, and others, often in remote locations, and played a central role in the Holocaust's early extermination efforts.

Death squads that carry out mass shooting (they are part of the SS): 

The death squads responsible for mass shootings during the Holocaust were part of the Einsatzgruppen, which were mobile units under the SS (Schutzstaffel). These squads were tasked with systematically executing Jews, Romani people, disabled individuals, and others deemed undesirable by the Nazi regime, often carrying out the killings in mass shootings at sites like ravines or forests.

Babi Yar (in today’s Ukraine, in Kyiv (Kiev, now thecapital city of Ukraine) then in the occupied Soviet Union): 

Babi Yar is a ravine in Kyiv, Ukraine, where, between September 29 and 30, 1941, the Einsatzgruppen and local collaborators murdered approximately 33,000 Jews in a single mass shooting, marking one of the largest atrocities of the Holocaust. Over the course of the Nazi occupation, Babi Yar became the site of thousands more executions, including Romani people, Soviet POWs, and disabled individuals, totaling an estimated 100,000 victims.

Killing centers: 

Killing centers (also known as extermination camps) were specially built facilities by the Nazis during the Holocaust designed for the systematic mass murder of Jews and other targeted groups. Notable examples include Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, and Majdanek, where victims were primarily killed in gas chambers, and their bodies disposed of in crematoria, in a systematic attempt to exterminate entire populations.

T-4 program: 

The T-4 Program was a Nazi euthanasia initiative that began in 1939, aimed at the systematic murder of individuals with disabilities, whom the regime deemed "life unworthy of life." Under the program, tens of thousands of disabled adults and children were killed in gas chambers, lethal injections, or through starvation, and the program laid the groundwork for the later genocidal practices of the Holocaust.

Auschwitz-Birkenau: 

Auschwitz-Birkenau was the largest and most infamous of the Nazi extermination camps, located in occupied Poland. It served as both a concentration and a killing center, where over 1.1 million people, primarily Jews, were murdered, most of them in gas chambers, while many others died from forced labor, starvation, and disease.

Bishop von Galen & opposition (such as it was) to T-4 :

 Bishop von Galen, the Catholic bishop of Münster, was one of the few high-profile figures to oppose the T-4 Program in Nazi Germany publicly. In 1941, he delivered powerful sermons condemning the euthanasia program, denouncing the murder of people with disabilities as immoral, which led to public protests and helped slow the program, although the Nazi regime never fully abandoned its policies of euthanasia.

5 categories of “camps” (Bergen, p. 208): 

The five categories of Nazi camps outlined in Bergen, p. 208 are:

1. Concentration Camps: These were the most common type of camp, where prisoners, including Jews, political opponents, and others deemed undesirable, were held in brutal conditions for forced labor, starvation, and mistreatment.
   
   

2. Extermination Camps: Specifically designed for mass murder, these camps, such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, and Sobibor, were equipped with gas chambers and crematoria to systematically kill large numbers of people.
   
   

3. Labor Camps: These camps used prisoners for forced labor in harsh conditions, often working in factories, mines, and construction projects, with many succumbing to exhaustion, malnutrition, and abuse.
   
   

4. Transit Camps: These served as temporary holding facilities where Jews and other prisoners were gathered before being deported to concentration or extermination camps.
   
   

5. Prisoner-of-War Camps: These camps held soldiers, especially Soviet POWs, who were subjected to horrific treatment, forced labor, and mass executions. Many died from malnutrition, disease, or were killed outright.
   
   

Samuel Golfard and his diary: 

Samuel Golfard was a Jewish man who survived the Holocaust and documented his experiences in a poignant diary. Born in Poland, Golfard’s diary provides a personal and harrowing account of his life under Nazi occupation, capturing the atrocities and suffering he endured in the ghettos and labor camps. His writings also offer a glimpse into the emotional toll of living through such extreme persecution, the loss of his family, and the constant fear of death. Through his diary, Golfard became a witness to the brutal reality of the Holocaust, ensuring that his experiences would be remembered as a testimony of human resilience in the face of unspeakable evil.

NKVD: 

The NKVD was the Soviet Union's secret police responsible for maintaining internal security and enforcing government policies through arrests, executions, and repression. It played a major role in Stalin's purges, the establishment of the Gulag labor camps, and the deportation of various ethnic groups.

“Judeo Bolshevism” – Nazi theory:

 "Judeo-Bolshevism" was a Nazi theory that falsely equated Jews with Bolshevism, claiming that Jews were behind the spread of communism and its revolutionary movements. This ideology was used by the Nazis to justify their persecution of Jews, portraying them as both a racial and political threat to society.

The town Golfard wrote the diary in: Przemyślany, then in Poland, today in Ukraine. Before WWII, it was known for its klezmer bands:

 Samuel Golfard wrote his diary in Przemyślany, a town located in what was then Poland and is now part of Ukraine. Before World War II, Przemyślany was known for its vibrant Jewish community and rich cultural life, particularly its klezmer bands, which played a central role in the town's social and religious events. The music, deeply rooted in Jewish traditions, echoed through the streets, reflecting the lively spirit of the town. However, with the outbreak of the war and the Nazi occupation, Przemyślany, like many other towns in Eastern Europe, was ravaged, and its Jewish community, including Golfard’s family, was brutally impacted by the Holocaust. The town's transformation from a place of cultural richness to one of suffering and loss is poignantly captured in Golfard's writings.

Romania – what happened during the Holocaust there, the basics, and what’s unique:

During the Holocaust, Romania was a key player in the persecution and extermination of Jews, with both Nazi Germany and the Romanian government collaborating in the genocide. The Romanian authorities, under the leadership of Ion Antonescu, implemented brutal measures, including deportations, forced labor, and mass executions. Approximately 280,000 Jews were killed, with many sent to Transnistria, a region under Romanian control, where they faced starvation, disease, and execution. Romania also had a distinct involvement in the Bucharest Pogrom of 1941 and supported the Nazis in the massacre of Jews in areas such as Odessa (modern-day Ukraine).

What makes Romania's Holocaust experience unique is the role of the Romanian government as an active perpetrator, not merely a collaborator, as they independently carried out much of the violence. While Romania was allied with Nazi Germany, the scale of its own involvement in ethnic cleansing, particularly in the Bessarabia and Bukovina regions, adds a distinct chapter to Holocaust history.

“Judeo-bolshevism”:

"Judeo-Bolshevism" was a Nazi ideology that falsely linked Jews with Bolshevism, claiming that Jews were behind the spread of communism and its revolutionary movements. This theory was used to justify anti-Semitic policies, portraying Jews as a dual threat both politically and racially.

Transnistria:

Transnistria was a region under Romanian control during World War II, where many Jews were deported from areas like Bessarabia and Bukovina. Over 100,000 Jews were forced into ghettos or labor camps in Transnistria, where they faced harsh conditions, starvation, disease, and mass executions.

General Ion Antonescu (ruled Romania after 1940, orchestrated the Holocaust there): 

General Ion Antonescu ruled Romania from 1940 to 1944 and was a key figure in orchestrating the Holocaust in the country. Under his leadership, Romania became one of the most active collaborators in the genocide, with Antonescu directly overseeing the deportation and mass murder of Jews, particularly in regions like Transnistria, as well as executing pogroms like the Bucharest Pogrom of 1941.

Battle of Stalingrad (1942-3):

The Battle of Stalingrad (1942–1943) was a pivotal confrontation between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II, fought in the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in southern Russia. It marked a turning point in the war, with the German army suffering a devastating defeat, resulting in the encirclement and surrender of around 300,000 German troops, significantly weakening Nazi forces on the Eastern Front.

Holocaust in the form of international law or institutions – give some examples:

The Holocaust played a significant role in shaping international law and the establishment of global institutions aimed at preventing future atrocities. Key examples include the Nuremberg Trials, where Nazi war criminals were prosecuted for crimes against humanity, and the United Nations' formation in 1945, which adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 to promote the protection of human dignity worldwide. Additionally, the Geneva Conventions were revised to better address war crimes and the treatment of civilians and prisoners of war.

1948 UN Convention against Genocide:

The 1948 UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was adopted by the United Nations in response to the atrocities of the Holocaust. It defined genocide as acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, and established legal obligations for states to prevent and punish genocide.

The Nuremberg Trials (International Military Tribunal):

The Nuremberg Trials (1945–1946) were a series of military tribunals held to prosecute prominent Nazi leaders for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. The International Military Tribunal (IMT) was established by the Allied powers and sentenced 12 top Nazi officials to death, while many others received prison sentences, marking a pivotal moment in the establishment of international law on human rights and war crimes.

1948 war and nakba: Founding of Israel:

 The 1948 Arab-Israeli War and the Nakba (meaning "catastrophe" in Arabic) were pivotal events surrounding the founding of the State of Israel. In 1948, after the United Nations proposed partitioning Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, Israel declared its independence, leading to immediate military conflict with neighboring Arab countries, resulting in a decisive Israeli victory. During this period, over 700,000 Palestinian Arabs were displaced or fled, an event referred to as the Nakba, which continues to shape the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Palestine under British Mandate, WWI to 1948:

From 1917 to 1948, Palestine was under British Mandate, a period following the end of World War I when Britain was granted administrative control by the League of Nations. During this time, tensions grew between Jewish and Arab populations due to conflicting promises made by Britain to both groups, leading to the rise of Jewish immigration following the Balfour Declaration of 1917 and increasing Arab resistance, which culminated in violent uprisings like the 1936–1939 Arab revolt. This period saw the foundations of the Israeli state being laid, as well as significant conflict and displacement, ultimately leading to the end of the mandate and the establishment of Israel in 1948.

From Susan Glenn’s talk: What did Americans know about the Holocaust and in what ways was the US response unsatisfactory? 

In Susan Glenn's talk, she highlighted that while many Americans were aware of the Holocaust through media reports, such as news stories and reports from Jewish refugees, the full extent of the atrocities was not widely understood until after the war. The U.S. response to the Holocaust was often deemed unsatisfactory due to delayed action, a reluctance to intervene earlier, and limited efforts to help refugees, with the U.S. government restricting immigration and not taking stronger measures to stop the genocide while it was happening.

From Glenn’s talk: give one example of a former Nazi whom the US rehabilitated after 1945, brought to the US, gave citizenship, and employed

In Susan Glenn's talk, she provided the example of Wernher von Braun, a former Nazi officer and rocket scientist, who was brought to the U.S. after 1945 under Operation Paperclip. Von Braun was given U.S. citizenship and employed by NASA, where he played a key role in the development of the American space program, despite his past involvement with the Nazi regime.

From Glenn’s talk: what was the US quota for migrants for Poland during WWII, and how did it compare to the Jewish population of Poland (which was around 3 million)?

In Susan Glenn's talk, she mentioned that the U.S. quota for migrants from Poland during World War II was very limited, at approximately 15,000 per year. This was in stark contrast to the Jewish population of Poland, which was around 3 million before the war, highlighting the insufficient efforts to provide refuge for Polish Jews facing the Holocaust.