Lecture Notes - Endocrine, Immune, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, and Lymphatic Systems (Vocabulary)

Endocrine System: Key Hormones and Glands (from Transcript)

• Hypothalamus and Pituitary

  • Posterior pituitary stores 2 hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus: Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin. In the transcript these were referred to as ABH and oxytocin; ADH is the standard term.
  • Anterior pituitary (the brain’s front lobe) makes several hormones; the speaker mentions two from the posterior and four more from the anterior, totaling eight pituitary-related hormones discussed. Anterior pituitary hormones highlighted or implied:
  • Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
  • Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
  • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
  • Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
  • Prolactin (PRL)
  • Other hormones commonly taught include Growth Hormone (GH) and possibly others; the transcript notes four “more” from the anterior.
  • Hypothalamic control terminology mentioned:
  • GRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone) — releasing hormone from hypothalamus that regulates LH/FSH from the anterior pituitary.
  • Parathyroid mention appears as part of broader endocrine context (parathyroid discussed later).

• Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Glands

  • Thyroid gland: Produces T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine).
  • Parathyroids: Associated with calcium homeostasis; the transcript notes two antagonistic hormones:
  • Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) — raises blood calcium levels.
  • Calcitonin — lowers blood calcium levels. They are described as antagonists in the transcript.
  • Adrenal glands:
  • Adrenal Cortex (the outer layer) produces:
    • Mineralocorticoids (e.g., Aldosterone) — retains salt; increases blood pressure.
    • Glucocorticoids (e.g., Cortisol) — regulates glucose metabolism; interacts with insulin.
    • Androgens (sex hormones) as adrenal gonadocorticoids.
  • Adrenal Medulla (the inner core) produces:
    • Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine — fight/flight responses; bronchodilation; vascular effects; can increase heart rate.
  • The transcript emphasizes ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) as controlling cortisol production via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

• Additional Endocrine Notes Mentioned

  • Cortisol and insulin interaction: cortisol influences blood glucose regulation; mentioned with insulin function.
  • Androgens: noted as adrenal sex hormones (gonadocorticoids).

• Summary of Hormone Roles (from Transcript)

  • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Fight-or-flight responses; bronchodilation; vascular tone changes; heart rate modulation.
  • Aldosterone: Mineralocorticoid; salt retention; increases blood pressure.
  • Cortisol: Glucocorticoid; glucose metabolism; interacts with insulin.
  • PTH and Calcitonin: Calcium homeostasis; antagonistic roles in blood calcium.
  • T3/T4: Metabolic regulation (thyroid hormones).
  • LH/FSH: Gonadal regulation (reproduction; not elaborated in depth in transcript).
  • TSH: Thyroid stimulation (regulates thyroid hormone release).
  • PRL: Prolactin (lactation-related; not elaborated in depth).
  • ADH/Oxytocin: Posterior pituitary hormones stored after hypothalamic production; ADH regulates water balance; oxytocin influences uterine contractions and milk ejection.

Blood, Plasma, and Coagulation

• Blood composition (as described in transcript):

  • Plasma makes up a large portion of blood and is mostly water; plasma proteins include albumin (transcript notes “algae” due to mispronunciation; correct term: albumin).
  • Formed elements include red blood cells (RBCs) and leukocytes; platelets are involved in coagulation.
  • Albumin is the most abundant plasma protein; RBCs carry oxygen via hemoglobin.

• Coagulation cascade (memory cue from transcript):

  • The coagulation cascade includes a common pathway involving factors I, II, and X (the transcript recalls I, II, and X; V is typically part of the common pathway as a cofactor; the transcript’s memory aligns with “I, II, X,” and includes “V” in discussion).
  • Common pathway (simplified): fibrinogen (I) → fibrin by thrombin; prothrombin (II) → thrombin; common factors include I, II, V, X.
  • Anticoagulants mentioned: Heparin and Warfarin are used to monitor and influence coagulation (drug names provided by the instructor).

• Blood types (ABO system) – key points discussed:

  • Type O: antibodies against A and B; no A/B antigens present on red cells.
  • Type AB: no antibodies against A or B; has both A and B antigens.
  • Type A: has anti-B antibodies; A antigens present.
  • Type B: has anti-A antibodies; B antigens present.
  • The transcript emphasizes understanding which types have antibodies against other types and which have specific surface antigens.

Cardiovascular Anatomy and Blood Flow (Heart and Vessels)

• Cardiac anatomy basics mentioned:
  • Apex of the heart: described as bottom left; standard teaching places the apex at the left 5th intercostal space at the midclavicular line.
  • Auricles (atria) visually described as ears on the heart.
  • The right and left sides of the heart and major vessels (context for later discussion of vessels).
• Blood flow sequence (as discussed; corrected for accuracy):
  • Superior and inferior vena cava → Right atrium → Tricuspid valve → Right ventricle → Pulmonary artery → Lungs (gas exchange) → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Mitral valve → Left ventricle → Aorta → Systemic circulation.
  • The transcript includes some hand-marks and misstatements (e.g., order involving pulmonary veins), so note the standard flow above.
• Septa and conduction system:
  • Septa: interatrial septum (between atria) and interventricular septum (between ventricles) are mentioned; foramen ovale noted as a fetal structure that closes after birth.
  • Electrical conduction pathway (as taught): SA node → AV node → AV bundle (bundle of His) → Bundle branches → Purkinje fibers (ventricular conduction).
  • The transcript notes the sequence with emphasis on bundle branches and Purkinje fibers; order nuances are consistent with standard physiology (SA → AV → His bundle → Bundle branches → Purkinje fibers).
• Vessels and terminology:
  • The largest arteries near the heart; veins drain toward the heart.
  • Elastic (elastin-rich) arteries are the largest near the heart due to their elasticity.
  • Angiogenesis vs vascularization:
  • Angiogenesis = growth of new blood vessels.
  • Vascularization = extent or density of existing blood vessels.
  • Capillary types and perfusion discussed: a continuous capillary is described; perfusion is better at the lung bases than the apices in some contexts (notes about posture and activity).

Lymphatic System and Immunity

• Roles and components:
  • Lymphatic vessels reabsorb excess tissue fluid from interstitial spaces back to the blood vessels.
  • Lacteals: specialized lymphatic vessels in the intestinal villi for fat absorption (chyle).
  • Peyer’s patches: gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) in the ileum; part of MALT.
  • MALT: Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue; present wherever mucous membranes are present; provides immune defense at mucosal surfaces.
• Lymphoid immunity: cell types and development
  • Lymphocytes: T cells, B cells, and Natural Killer (NK) cells.
  • Phagocytes: neutrophils, macrophages are highlighted as part of the innate immune response.
  • Interferons: described as cytokines involved in immune signaling.
  • Complement system: mentions classical pathway as part of the innate immune response; classical pathway requires antigen presentation to lymphocytes (APCs present antigens to T cells).
• Immunity levels and defense lines:
  • First line of defense: Skin and mucous membranes.
  • Second line of defense: Innate immune components (e.g., complement, inflammation).
  • Inflammation: cardinal signs include redness (rubor), heat (calor), swelling (tumor), pain (dolor); additional notes about passive vs acquired immunity.
• Adaptive immunity and T cell activation:
  • CD4+ helper T cell activation involves antigen-presenting cells (APCs) presenting antigen via MHC to T cells; this is a reference to the first signal in T cell activation.

Respiratory System and Lung Anatomy

• Conducting vs respiratory divisions:
  • Conducting zone: conducts air but does not participate in gas exchange.
  • Respiratory zone: includes respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
• Trachea and beyond:
  • From trachea to terminal bronchioles is part of the conducting zone; alveolar regions constitute the respiratory zone.
• Lungs and lobes:
  • Right lung has three lobes; Left lung has two lobes (due to the heart occupying space on the left).
  • Apex of the lung is near the collarbone area; apical region can be vulnerable to puncture and should be considered in trauma.
  • Diaphragm limits lung expansion; most lung volume is from the diaphragmatic region in ordinary breathing; perfusion is greater at the bases than at the apices in typical standing posture.
• Lung structures:
  • Hilum: indented medial region where bronchus, blood vessels, and nerves pass into/out of the lung.
  • A practical note: the right side is larger due to heart position, hence three lobes vs two on the left.

Ear, Nose, Throat, and Public Health Note

• Eustachian (auditory) tube:
  • Connects middle ear to the nasopharynx; this connection explains susceptibility to middle-ear infections, especially with water exposure during swimming.
• TB testing and hospital requirements:
  • Transcript mentions TB skin testing and hospital policies; not all CDC guidelines require TB testing in every setting, but individual hospitals may have policies about immunizations and tests.
  • The student indicates current personal experience with TB tests and immunization records at a hospital; check local requirements for clinical placements.

Quick Cross-Topic Takeaways and Connections

• Hormone interplay across systems:
  • The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis integrates endocrine control (e.g., ACTH stimulates cortisol; cortisol influences glucose metabolism and interacts with insulin).
  • Adrenal medulla hormones (epinephrine/norepinephrine) work in concert with sympathetic nervous system responses, impacting heart rate, airway dilation, and vascular tone.
• Blood and immunity links:
  • Plasma components (albumin) help maintain oncotic pressure, while leukocytes and lymphocytes mediate defense; coagulation factors stabilize injury sites.
  • The inflammatory response supplements the immune response, with the complement system aiding opsonization and pathogen destruction.
• Structural-functional links in cardiopulmonary systems:
  • The heart’s conduction system coordinates rhythmic pumping; the pulmonary circuit interfaces with the lungs for gas exchange in the respiratory zone.
  • The lung’s lobation reflects structural organization and space constraints (heart location influencing left lung's two lobes).

Note on potential transcript inaccuracies to be aware of:

• Some hormone names and locations were misstated (e.g., ABH for ADH; “PSH” instead of PRL; the exact count of anterior pituitary hormones discussed varies in the transcript).
• Blood flow order in the transcript contains minor errors; the standard cardiovascular flow is provided in the notes for clarity.
• Terms like “parapatches” appear to be a mispronunciation or typo; the intended terms are Peyer’s patches (GALT).

If you’d like, I can convert these notes into a printable study sheet, add a glossary of terms, or create flashcards for each gland and hormone mentioned.