Week 3 - Lecture Slides

PART 1: THE CONTRIBUTION OF NEUROSCIENCE TO EXPLAINING CRIMINALITY

Key Issues

• Brain Functioning Links: Research investigates whether specific criminal behaviors can be linked to identifiable brain abnormalities or injuries. This prompts inquiries into whether a biological basis could underlie predispositions for criminal activity.

• Neurotransmitters and Hormones: The relationship between various neurotransmitters (like dopamine and serotonin) and hormones (like cortisol) with criminal behavior is critical, with studies revealing how their imbalances can influence aggression and impulsivity.

• Dietary Impact: Investigates whether an individual's diet contributes to criminal behavior, particularly looking at nutrients that can impact brain function and mood regulation.

Neuroscientific Theory

• Predisposition Factors: Evidence suggests that genetic, hormonal, or neurobiological predispositions can play a significant role in leading individuals towards criminal offenses. This is often explored through twin studies and familial patterns of behavior.

• Brain Development Focus: Research studies target specific brain areas that differentiate social behaviors from antisocial behaviors, indicating how developmental processes may lead to criminality.

• Risk Factors: Identifying negative influences on brain function and development, including environmental toxins and adverse childhood experiences, is crucial for understanding their contributions to criminality.

The Social Brain

Key Areas:

• Cerebral Cortex: Involved in higher cognitive functions including decision-making, social interactions, and controlled responses.

• Limbic System: Plays a vital role in emotional regulation and social cues, with dysfunction here being linked to antisocial behaviors.

Case Study: Phineas Gage

• Incident Description: In 1848, Gage survived an accident where a tamping rod penetrated his skull, resulting in significant personality changes that included impulsivity and socially inappropriate behaviors, underscoring the role of the left frontal lobe in personality and moral development.

The Left Frontal Lobe

• Substructures include:

  • Premotor cortex: Planning of movements.

  • Motor cortex: Execution of movements.

  • Prefrontal cortex: Critical for complex cognitive behavior.

  • Broca's Area: Involved in language processing and speech production.

Structural Integrity in Offenders

Research Overview: Studies often investigate the brain structure and volumes of individuals with antisocial behaviors to find significant differences from normative populations.Key Findings:

• Prefrontal Lesions: Found to disrupt moral and social development (Taber-Thomas et al., 2014), implications for rehabilitation highlight the necessity of targeting these brain areas.

• Bryant et al. (1984): Disclosure that 73% of violent crimes sampled occurred in brain-injured patients, correlating trauma with increased aggression.

Other Affected Brain Regions:

• Kaya et al (2020): Reported that patients with Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) exhibit smaller hippocampal and amygdala regions, both critical for emotional responses and memory processing.

• Casanova et al (2004): Found reduced right temporal lobe volume correlates with conduct disorder in children, emphasizing neurodevelopmental pathways.

• Raine (2010): The study suggests that a cavum septum pellucidum’s presence is implicated in psychopathy and ASPD, orienting towards structural brain anomalies contributing to these disorders.

Functional Problems in Offenders

Focus Shift: Research has shifted towards understanding brain functioning and connectivity issues that relate to executive functions and their association with criminal behavior.Research Methods: Techniques such as fMRI studies, EEG studies, and neuropsychological assessments are employed to uncover brain activity patterns linked to criminality.

fMRI Studies:

• Functionality: Allows researchers to detect brain activity by measuring blood flow variations in response to cognitive tasks.

• Notable Findings: Poepple et al. (2019) discovered abnormal activity within frontal, insular, and limbic regions among individuals with psychopathy, indicating these areas’ relevance in emotional processing and regulation.

• Aharoni et al. (2013): Suggested a notable relation between low Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) activity and increased likelihood of re-arrest, indicating the predictive value of cognitive control functions in criminal behavior.

Paedophiles and Brain Activity:Studies have shown a marked reduction in brain activity in response to adult erotic stimuli, highlighting deviations in typical sexual arousal patterns due to structural differences.

Key Brain Regions Involved Include:

• Hypothalamus: Critical for arousal and sexual responses.

• Frontal Cortex: Indicates stimulation needs which relate closely to control of impulses.

Predicting Antisocial Behavior

• Neurological Correlates: Studies have shown that brain activity during inhibitory tasks is capable of predicting future arrests.

• Low Anterior Cingulate Activity: Correlates with increased rearrest rates (Aharoni et al., 2013), reinforcing how brain function directly impacts behavioral outcomes.

EEG Research

• Measuring Approach: Focuses on electrical brain activity to understand patterns of arousal and responsiveness. Studies show slower EEG readings in youth linked to future criminal delinquency.

• Abnormal Frontal Lobe Patterns: Suggest impaired emotional regulation, which is critical for social behaviors and moral decision-making.

EEG and Antisocial Behavior

• Twin Studies: Research indicates that EEG power properties measured in twins correlate strongly with observed antisocial behavior between ages 14-15, providing insights into genetic transmission of behavioral traits.

Neuropsychological Testing

• Cognitive Deficits: Findings show lower verbal IQ scores and executive functioning deficits are prevalent in antisocial populations (Fairchild et al., 2013).

• Emotion Recognition Deficits: Research indicates recognition deficits in emotions like fear and sadness are associated with conduct disorder (Hartman & Schwenck, 2020), hinting at the broader implications of emotional intelligence on criminal behavior.

Neuronal Mechanisms

• Neurotransmitter Communication: Electro-chemical signals play a vital role in transmitting neural communications and influence various behaviors.

Neurotransmitters Overview

• Types:

  • Dopamine: Crucial for arousal, attention, and motor activity. Dysregulation is often noted in violent offenders.

  • Serotonin: Affects mood and can influence impulsivity; lower levels have been frequently found among prison populations, indicating its role in aggression and self-control.

  • Norepinephrine: Its levels significantly impact aggression and stress responses, contributing to impulsivity and emotional volatility.

Aggressive Behavior at Neuronal Level

• Increased norepinephrine corresponds with heightened aggression traits, while reductions in dopamine have been linked to decreased aggression levels, highlighting complex interactions within neurotransmitter systems.

• Elevated serotonin levels are associated with reduced aggression, indicating the potential for targeted dietary or pharmacological interventions.

Other Biological Factors

• Lead Toxin: Proven to have detrimental effects on neurotransmitter systems, leading to learning deficits and increased behavioral issues, particularly during critical developmental periods.

• Drug Influence: Various substances, most notably alcohol, stimulants, and PCP, have shown stronger links to aggression, raising questions about genetic predispositions toward drug dependence's role in criminality.

Dietary Influences

• Prenatal and Nutritional Influences: Factors such as nutritional deprivations, observed during periods like the WWII food blockade, can lead to long-lasting behavioral issues in children.

• Deficiencies in Nutrients: Specific deficiencies in iron and vitamins have been correlated with increased problem behaviors, while omega-3 fatty acids have been noted for promoting regulation and decreasing impulsivity.

Legal Implications

• Neuroscience findings may be utilized as defenses in criminal cases, notably challenging traditional views of free will and moral culpability.

The ‘Twinkie’ Defense

• Case Study: In the case of Dan White, arguments were made to diminish his sentence based on claims that his mental capacity was influenced negatively due to excessive junk food consumption, reflecting on how nutritional factors can sway perceptions of behavioral responsibility.

Evaluation of Biological Explanations

• Biological theories serve to complement existing psychological and sociological views, offering novel treatment pathways and interventions that incorporate an understanding of the neurological underpinnings of criminal behavior.

Key Points to Take Away

• Criminal behaviors can be linked to a combination of biological factors, including:

  • Brain Structure

  • Neurotransmitters

  • Hormonal Influences

  • Diet

• These approaches should be seen as complementary to other theories that seek to explain offending behavior.

PART 2: COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

Key Issues

• Examines the definition of cognition, emphasizing its relationship to moral reasoning and how these factors intermingle with criminality.

• Questions arise regarding whether crime is resultant from rational choice, impulsivity, or ingrained personality traits.

Cognitive Theory

• Cognition encompasses a wide array of functions including memory, imagery, intelligence, reasoning, and critical thinking. Previous research connects impulsive behaviors to significant cognitive errors, underscoring the complexities of cognitive processing in relation to crime.

• It is essential to recognize that cognition does not operate independently but rather interacts intricately with biological dispositions and social circumstances.

Social-Information Processing Theory

• Stages of Information Processing: Includes crucial steps such as:

  1. Perceiving social cues.

  2. Interpreting the situation and understanding context.

  3. Setting specific goals based on interpretation.

  4. Deciding on an appropriate response.

  5. Evaluating potential options for action.

  6. Engaging in the selected behavior.Offenders may struggle significantly at various stages, leading to maladaptive responses (Akhtar & Bradley, 1991).

Cognitive Aspects Related to Criminal Behavior

• Perspective Taking & Empathy: Limited in certain offenders; studies show that a lack of empathetic understanding may not directly reflect broader criminal tendencies.

• Self-Control: Impulsivity can often be reframed as a significant failure of appropriate self-control mechanisms, aligning with principles established by Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990).

Moral Reasoning

• Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Highlights the notion that there exists a developmental delay in moral reasoning frequently linked to delinquent behaviors.

• Stages progress from avoidance of punishment to adherence to universal ethical principles, reflecting a spectrum of moral understanding in individuals.

Cognitive Distortions in Moral Reasoning

• Cognitive distortions serve to simplify and rationalize justification for negative and criminal behaviors (for instance, blaming societal factors for burglary).

Evaluation of Moral Reasoning

• While Kohlberg's focus rests firmly on moral reasoning, discrepancies in moral reasoning patterns across various crime types have been noted, asking important questions about the implications of this divergence for rehabilitation and justice.

Rational Choice Theory

• Fundamentals: Asserts that crime often results from the interplay of available opportunities and an individual’s motivation to execute actions (Wilcox & Cullen, 2018).

• It emphasizes rational decision-making processes over merely biological or environmental influences, suggesting that crime is often a calculative choice rather than an impulsive act.

Evaluation of Rational Choice Theory

• Pros: Provides a foundation for effective crime prevention strategies that apply rational processing tactics.

• Cons: Critics note that not all criminal acts are planned; many behaviors arise impulsively, which challenges the universality of the theory.

Hans Eysenck’s Theory of Personality

• Proposed three main personality components that underpin behaviors:

  • Extraversion: Characterized by active, sensation-seeking tendencies.

  • Neuroticism: Captures anxious and emotional traits.

  • Psychoticism: Encompasses antisocial behaviors and egocentric tendencies linked to several criminal profiles.

Criminal Personality

• Describes criminals as likely to exemplify higher levels of extraversion, psychoticism, and neuroticism, leading to patterns of behaviors that align with criminality.

Evaluation of Eysenck's Theory

• While Eysenck’s broad theory integrates biological factors, it has faced substantial criticism due to unreliable data sources and an oversimplification of complex behaviors.

Psychopathy Focus

• Cleckley’s traits highlighted key characteristics of psychopathy, identified through features such as superficial charm and lack of empathy.

• Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-R): Developed by Hare, widely used in criminal populations to evaluate the extent of psychopathy.

Psychopathy and Aggression

• Findings show that male psychopaths generally exhibit higher levels of aggression when compared to their non-psychopathic counterparts. Mixed results have been observed in female psychopaths, indicating the necessity of separate studies based on gender.

Indirect Aggression in Psychopathy

• Limited research suggests potential links between psychopathy and indirect forms of aggression, driven predominantly by impulsiveness rather than pre-meditated aggression.

Role of Empathy

• Studies have indicated that deficits in empathy are consistently linked to aggressive behaviors; hence, understanding empathy's role is crucial as it mediates relationships with aggression.

Psychopathy and Risk Prediction

• Psychopathy has become crucial in assessing risks for violence and overall criminality, emphasizing the necessity for thorough psychological evaluations in criminal justice systems.

Antisocial Personality Disorder vs. Psychopathy

• A distinct separation is often made between ASPD and psychopathy, with the latter representing a more extreme form characterized by interpersonal exploitation and lacking remorse.

Key Points to Take Away

• Various cognitive theories exist that seek to explain criminality, emphasizing the importance of understanding personality