Untitled Flashcards Set

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

• Piaget proposed that children progress through four distinct stages of cognitive development, each characterized by different abilities and ways of thinking about the world.

• Stage 1: Sensory-Motor (Birth to 2 years) - In this stage, infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions. Key developments include:

• Coordination of sensory input and motor responses.

• Development of object permanence, understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen.

• Self-recognition begins to emerge.

• Stage 2: Preoperational (2 to 7 years) - This stage is marked by the development of symbolic thought and language. Key characteristics include:

• Egocentrism, where children have difficulty seeing perspectives other than their own.

• Conservation flaws, where children struggle to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.

• Fantasy play becomes prominent, showcasing imagination.

• Stage 3: Concrete-Operational (7 to 11 years) - Children begin to think logically about concrete events. Key features include:

• Mastery of conservation, understanding that quantity remains unchanged despite changes in form.

• Ability to classify objects into different sets and understand relationships between them.

• Stage 4: Formal Operational (11 years to adulthood) - This final stage involves the ability to think abstractly and systematically. Key aspects include:

• Logical reasoning applied to hypothetical situations.

• Development of systematic planning and problem-solving skills.

Summary of Cognitive Development Stages

• Piaget's theory emphasizes that cognitive development is a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience.

• Each stage is characterized by a different way of thinking and understanding the world, with children unable to skip stages, reflecting a structured progression.

• The concept of schemas is central to Piaget's theory, where children build mental models to understand their experiences.

• Assimilation and accommodation are processes that help children adapt their schemas based on new information, crucial for cognitive growth.

• Piaget's work laid the foundation for understanding child development and has influenced educational practices.

Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

• Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning develops in stages, divided into three main levels, each with two stages.

• Preconventional Level (Childhood):

• Stage 1: Punishment Orientation - Morality is based on avoiding punishment.

• Stage 2: Naïve Reward - Morality is based on obtaining rewards and satisfying one's own interests.

• Conventional Level (Adolescence):

• Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation - Morality is based on gaining approval from others.

• Stage 4: Authority Orientation - Morality is based on following rules and laws to maintain social order.

• Postconventional Level (Adulthood):

• Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation - Morality is based on social contracts and individual rights.

• Stage 6: Individual Principles and Conscience Orientation - Morality is based on abstract principles of justice and equality.

Key Insights on Moral Development

• Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral reasoning matures through a series of stages, with individuals unable to skip stages, reflecting a linear progression.

• The theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and experiences in shaping moral reasoning.

• Each stage represents a different perspective on morality, from self-interest to societal norms and finally to universal ethical principles.

• Kohlberg's work has been influential in understanding moral education and ethical decision-making.

Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved for healthy development.

• Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year) - Infants learn to trust caregivers for basic needs, forming the foundation for future relationships.

• Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years) - Toddlers develop independence and self-control, learning to do things for themselves.

• Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years) - Children balance their eagerness for adventure with responsibility, learning to control impulses.

• Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years) - Children learn skills and competencies, transitioning from home to school environments.

• Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years) - Adolescents explore different roles to form a coherent identity.

Summary of Psychosocial Development Stages

• Each stage of Erikson's theory is crucial for developing a healthy personality and social relationships.

• Successful resolution of each crisis leads to a stronger sense of self and the ability to face future challenges.

• The theory emphasizes the impact of social relationships and cultural context on development.

• Erikson's stages highlight the lifelong nature of development, extending into late adulthood.

Life Span Development

Overview of Developmental Psychology

• Developmental psychology examines how individuals grow and change throughout their lifespan, focusing on physical, cognitive, and social development.

• Three central issues in developmental psychology include:

• Nature vs. Nurture - The debate over the influence of genetics versus environment on development.

• Continuity vs. Stages - Whether development is a gradual process or occurs in distinct stages.

• Stability vs. Change - Whether personality traits remain stable or change over time.

Prenatal Development

• Prenatal development occurs from conception to birth, typically lasting about nine months.

• Key stages include:

• Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks, where the fertilized egg begins to divide and develop.

• Embryo: 2 weeks to 8 weeks, where major organs and structures begin to form, including the heartbeat.

• Fetus: 9 weeks to birth, where growth and maturation continue.

• Teratogens are harmful substances that can affect fetal development, leading to birth defects.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Overview of Cognitive Development Stages

• Cognitive development is divided into four key stages as proposed by Jean Piaget: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational.

• Each stage represents a different way of thinking and understanding the world, with specific characteristics and milestones.

• The stages are sequential, meaning that children must progress through them in order, although the age ranges can vary.

• Understanding these stages helps in recognizing the cognitive abilities and limitations of children at different ages.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

• Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions, such as sucking, grasping, and cooing.

• Key concept: Object permanence, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. This is a crucial cognitive milestone.

• Self-recognition develops late in this stage, as evidenced by studies like Brooks-Gunn & Lewis's 'red-nosed babies' experiment, indicating awareness of self.

Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

• Characterized by the development of language and symbolic thinking, but still lacks logical reasoning.

• Egocentrism is prevalent; children struggle to see things from perspectives other than their own.

• The Juice Glass Experiment illustrates conservation flaws, where children cannot understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

• Delayed gratification is introduced, highlighted by the Stanford marshmallow experiment, showing long-term benefits of self-control.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

• Children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.

• They can perform operations that involve tangible objects and can classify items based on multiple criteria.

• This stage marks a significant improvement in mathematical comprehension and problem-solving skills.

Formal Operational Stage (11 Years to Adulthood)

• Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically, moving beyond concrete experiences.

• They can consider possibilities and engage in systematic planning and reasoning.

• The 'third eye' experiment by Schaffer (1988) illustrates the shift to abstract thinking, as older children provide more complex answers.

Social Development Across the Lifespan

Infancy and Early Childhood

• Social development begins at birth, with attachment forming between the infant and primary caregiver, as studied by Harry Harlow.

• Imprinting is a critical concept, where newborns follow the first moving object they see, typically their mother.

• Stranger anxiety emerges around 8 months, indicating the development of social awareness and attachment.

Childhood Social Interactions

• Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development outline key challenges faced from birth to old age, such as trust vs. mistrust in infancy.

• Children engage in different types of play: solitary, parallel, and cooperative, reflecting their social development and ability to interact with peers.

• Formation of peer groups becomes significant, providing social support and shared interests.

Parenting Styles and Their Impact

• Parenting styles include authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative, each affecting children's social competence and self-esteem differently.

• Authoritative parenting is associated with the best outcomes, fostering self-reliance and social skills in children.

• The importance of child-rearing practices is highlighted in the development of gender roles and identity.

Adolescence and Identity Formation

• Adolescence is marked by significant physical, emotional, and social changes, including the quest for identity.

• Erikson's Identity vs. Role Confusion stage emphasizes the importance of developing a stable sense of self.

• Peer influence grows, often leading to conflicts with parental guidance, but also providing essential support for independence.

Challenges in Adolescence

Mental Health and Self-Esteem

• Self-esteem is crucial during adolescence, with body image being the primary factor influencing it.

• Low self-esteem can lead to eating disorders such as Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa, which are serious mental health issues.

• The prevalence of obesity is also a concern, defined as a BMI of 30 or more, with various contributing factors.

Suicide and Its Causes

• Suicide rates have risen since the 1950s, becoming a leading cause of death among adolescents.

• Factors contributing to suicide include low self-esteem, unstable family environments, and social isolation.

• Thomas Joiner's theory suggests that the desire for death arises from unmet needs for belonging and effectiveness.

Aggression and Violence in Adolescence

• Aggression can stem from various factors, including socioeconomic status, parental involvement, and media influence.

• Types of aggression include teasing, bullying, and more severe acts of violence, which can have lasting impacts on individuals and communities.

• Understanding the causes of aggression is essential for developing effective interventions.