Geography

9/6/23

Latitude and Longitude, The Geographic Grid

Latitude - East/West lines that determine North/South locations.

Each parallel to the next

Sometimes called parallels

Expressed in degrees

90 degrees is the maximum amount of latitude

Longitude - North/South lines that determine East/West locations

Are not parallels; converge at the poles

Sometimes called meridians

Expressed in degrees

Greenwich Meridian Prime Meridian

0 degrees longitude

Line from which lines of longitude are numbered

Whenever you write coordinates, by convention, latitude MUST COME FIRST!

Latitude FIRST, Longitude SECOND

Tropic of Cancer

23.5 Degrees North

The northern most point on earth that experiences the direct rays of the sun

Tropic of Capricorn

23.5 Degrees South

The southern most point on earth that experiences the direct rays of the sun

Arctic Circle

66.5 Degrees North

The farthest point from the North Pole, in the northern hemisphere, that experiences at least one day when the sun does not rise and at least one day when the sun does not set.

Antarctic Circle

66.5 Degrees South

The farthest point from the South Pole, in the southern hemisphere, that experiences at least one day when the sun does not rise and at least one day when the sun does not set.

9/8/23

International Dateline - Line marking the point where each day ends and begins

24 time zones

Maps - Primary tool of the geographer

A map is a scaled representation of all 4 portions of the earths surface.

All maps in geography are reductions

CHECK PHONE PHOTOS FROM 9/8/23 FOR PICTURE OF EXAMPLE OF THE GRAPH THING

3 Methods of Scale Representation - Three ways that the cartographer can present map scale to us

Graphic Scale

Stated Scale - 1 inch = 1 mile

Representative Fraction (RF) - 1 : 24,000 (1 unit on the map is 24,000 of that same unit in real life)

All three shown in legend

9/11/23

U.S.G.S - United States Geological Survey

IN charge of overseeing any geological issue in the country, even the world. Floods, earthquakes, tidalwaves, etc...

Our Country's Mapping Agency

Small Scale Maps

Show a lot of area - little detail

EX: World Map

R.F. = 1:24,000,000

Large Scale Maps

Little area - lot of detail

R.F. = 1:24,000

3 Basic Types of Maps

Planimetric

Thematic

Topographic

Planimetric

Show two dimensional information only (2D)

No reference to altitude (Not needed)

EX: Road Map

Thematic (Topical) Maps

Present a theme or topic

Maybe of greatest use in presenting geographic information

Topographic Maps

Show Three Dimensional Information (3D)

Altitude Values are shown

Topographic from Topography

Topography - The surface features of the earth and their arrangement.

Ways to show 3D information

Raised Relief

Colors

Contour Lines

Raised Relief

Colors

Contour Lines - (Isolines) Connects points of equal altitude

9/13/23

Map Projections

The way that the surface features of the Earth are projected onto the map surface.

Great Circle

A great circle is any line which bisects the Earth into two equal half spheres

Significance - Any portion of a great circle represents the shortest distance between two points on Earth.

Great Circle Routes

9/15/23

The Universe - All Things

Cosmology - The study of the Universe

Astronomy - The study of space

Speed of Light - 186,000 Miles Per Second

The Light Year - The distance that light will travel in one year's time.

6,000,000,000,000 Miles

The Light Year is a measure of DISTANCE, NOT a measure of TIME!

How old is the Universe?

The Big Bang - Occurred between 13.6 - 14.0 billion years ago

How big is our universe?

The distance to the edge of the known universe is estimated to be about 14 billion light years

Galaxies - An organized group of stars.

Andromeda Galaxy

Barred Spiral

Hubble Deep Field Photo

Ring Nebula

9/18/23

Formation of Planets

Proto Earth

Terrestrial Planets

Relatively small size, rocky composition, dense, few moons

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

Jovian Planets

Large in size, gaseous composition, not dense, many moons, ring systems

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

The Solar System

Asteroids

Pieces of space rocks

Asteroid Belt

Comets

Meteors

Geography 9/20

Asteroids

Asteroid Belt

Comets

Comet Hale-Bopp

Comet 67P

Meteor

Meteors that survive the burn and reach the ground are called Meteorites.

Meteor Showers

Geography 9/22/23

Size and Shape of the Earth

Earth

Diameters of the Earth

Equatorial Diameter - 7,926 Miles

Polar Diameter - 7,900 Miles

26 Mile Difference

Polar Flattening

Relief

The difference in altitude between the highest and lowest points of an area or region

Relief of the world

Highest Point - Mount Everest: 5.5 Miles High

Lowest Point - Marianas Trench: 7.0 Miles Deep

Total Relief of the World - 12.5 Miles

Relief of Maryland

Lowest Point - Ocean City, MD: Sea Level: 0 Feet

Highest Point - Backbone Mountain: 3,360 Feet

Total Relief of Maryland - 3,360 Feet

Types of Terrain

Low Relief - Ex. Maryland's Eastern Shore

High Relief - Ex. Mountains in Western Maryland

High Rugged Relief - Ex. Rocky Mountains

Geography 9/25/23

Movements of the Earth in Space

Rotation

The spinning of the Earth around it's axis.

Axis - Imaginary line passing through the center of the Earth and intersecting the surface at the poles.

Period and Speed of Rotation

Period - 24 Hours (1 Day)

Speed - Varies with Latitude

Fastest at equator - 1040 MPH

Speed decreases with increasing latitude

At the poles - 0 MPH

Revolution

The movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun.

The Earth describes an elliptical orbit around the Sun.

93,000,000 Miles = 1 A.U. (Astronomical Unit)

Period and Speed of Revolution

Period - 365.25 Days (1 Year)

Speed - Varies depending on position in orbit.

Slower at Aphelion

Faster at Perihelion

Average speed - 67,000 MPH

The Seasons

The seasons are caused by a combination of the Earth's revolution and its inclination (tilt) to the ecliptic.

The Seasons

Vernal Equinox - First Day of Spring - March 21

Summer Solstice - First Day of Summer - June 21

Autumnal Equinox - First Day of Fall - Sept 21

Winter Solstice - First Day of Winter - Dec 21

The Seasons

The seasons are caused by a combination of the Earth's revolution and its inclination (tilt) to the ecliptic.

Geography 9/27/23

The Seasons

The Seasons are caused by a combination of the Earth's revolution and its inclination (tilt) to the ecliptic

Constellation

An arbitrary grouping of stars that today serve as reference points in the night sky

Geography 10/2/23

Sun's Energy

The Sun

Sun's Energy

Produced by Nuclear Fusion

4 Hydrogen atoms fused to form one Helium atom

The Sun is estimated to be converting Hydrogen to Helium at 400,000,000 tons per second

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Composition of Sun's Energy

51% Infrared or Longer Wavelength

41% Visible Light

8% Ultraviolet or Shorter Wavelength

Distribution of Insolation

30% - Wasted (Not Used)

20% - By Clouds

6% - By Particulates (Dust)

4% - By Surface

Insolation

In - Incoming

Sol - Solar

Ation - Radiation

Distribution of Insolation

Distribution of Insolation (Continued)

70% - Absorbed (Used by Earth System)

19% - By Clouds

51% - By Surface

Albedo

The amount of reflectance of an object or substance

Earth's Albedo = 30%

Geography 10/4/23

Composition of the Atmosphere

Primary Gases (Nonvariable Gases)

Nitrogen (N2) - 78%

Oxygen (O2) - 21%

Argon (Ar) - 1%

Important Long Term Variable Gases

- Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (Triatomic)

Important Greenhouse Gas

Essential component in the Carbon Cycle

Needed by plants

- Ozone (O3) (Triatomic)

An irritant and pollutant at the surface

Blocks UV radiation aloft

Trace Gases

- Examples:

Helium

Radon

Sulfur Dioxide

Carbon Monoxide

Methane

Thousands of others

Short Term Variable Constituents

Water Vapor (H2O)

Important Greenhouse Gas

Essential to the Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

Particulates (Dust)

Essential to the Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

Cooling effect on Atmospheric Temperatures

Geography 10/6/23

Structure of the Atmosphere

Troposphere

Temps go down with altitude

Tropopause - Upper boundary of the Troposphere

Troposphere is 5-11 miles thick

Stratosphere

Temps go up with altitude

Protective layer of ozone concentrated here

Stratopause - The upper boundary of the Stratosphere

Stratopause located at 30 miles above the surface.

Mesosphere

Temps go down with altitude

Mesopause - Upper boundary of mesosphere

Mesopause located 50 miles above surface

Zone of meteor disintegration

Thermosphere

Temps go up with altitude

No distinct upper boundary

Zone of the aurora

Aurora

Aurora Borealis - Northern hemisphere Aurora Australis - Southern hemisphere

Geography 10/9/23

Weather

Weather

The condition of the atmosphere with respect to the weather elements for a SHORT period of time

Climate

The range of weather possibilities and probabilities for LONG periods of time

The Weather Elements

Temperature

Air Pressure

Wind

Moisture

Air Masses

Storms

Temperature

Atmospheric Temperatures:

The Atmosphere is warmed by the surfaces of the Earth utilizing Sun's energy

Earth's surface absorbs Sun's energy... and converts it to heat energy... and radiates it out to atmosphere

Some heat energy is lost to space... most is trapped in the atmosphere by the "Greenhouse Effect"

The Greenhouse Effect

The heat trapping ability of the Earth's atmosphere

Primary Greenhouse Gases

Carbon Dioxide - CO2

Water Vapor - H2O

Methane - CH4

Geography 10/11/23

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

Average Noon Sun Angle *** (VERY IMPORTANT)

Latitude - Generally speaking temps decrease with increasing latitude.

Season - Lower sun angles in winter; higher sun angles in summer (When sun is higher up, its more concentrated on one area; when sun is lower, its more spread out)

Land/Water Distribution

Northern Hemisphere - 52% Water (Ocean), 48% Land

Southern Hemisphere - 88% Water (Ocean), 12% Land

Temperatures more evenly distributed in Southern Hemisphere

Isothermal Map

Isotherm - Another example of an Isoline (Lines which connect points of equal value)

An Isotherm is a line that connects points of equal TEMPERATURE

Ocean Currents

Warm Currents - Flow along East coasts of continents

Cold Currents - Flow along West coasts of continents

East Coasts tend to be warmer

West Coast weather generally more stable

Gyres - A large system of rotating ocean currents.

Global Heat Balance - The global heat balance is the balance between incoming and outgoing heat on Earth. (Ocean currents mix warmer water with cooler water to balance the temperatures)

Altitude

Normal Lapse Rate - Average rate at which temperature goes down with altitude. Temperatures decrease 3.5 Degrees F/1,000 Feet

High mountainous areas are colder

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution (RECAP)

Average Noon Sun Angle (MOST IMPORTANT)

Land/Water distribution

Ocean Currents

Altitude

Geography 10/16/23

Feels Like Temperature

Wind Chill - The subjective amount of cold brought about by the combination of temperature and wind speed. (Wind makes it feel colder)

Wind Chill Index

Heat Index - The subjective amount of heat brought about by the combination of temperature and humidity. (The humidity makes it feel hotter)

Blank area is where dewpoint > 85F

3 Heat Transfer Methods

Radiation - Heat transfer without contact Conduction - Heat transfer with contact Convection - Heat transfer through movement

Urban Heat Island - When cities replace natural land cover with dense concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other surfaces that absorb and retain heat.

Annual Temperature Range - The difference between the hottest and the coldest months by taking monthly mean temperatures in each case.

Changes seasonally

Highest annual temperature ranges are found in the high altitudes. Lowest annual temperature ranges are found in the low altitudes.

Geography 10/18/23

Air Pressure

Same things: Air Pressure Atmospheric Pressure Barometric Pressure

Weight of the Atmosphere: 6 Quadrillion Tons

Weight per unit area: 14.7 lbs per square inch

We measure are pressure with a device called a Barometer

Mercurial Barometer - Called that because it uses Mercury Air pressure as measured by the Mercurial Barometer: 29.92 Inches of Mercury (Hg)

Aneroid Barometer: Has a small capsule with flexible sides that has had the air pumped out of it. Air pressure as measured by the Aneroid Barometer: 1013.2 Millibars (mb)

Normal air pressure at sea level: 14.7 lbs per square inch 29.92 inches (Mercurial Barometer) 1013.2 mb (Aneroid Barometer)

Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude Rate of decrease: 1/30 per 900 feet

Geography 10/23/23

High Pressure Centers

Called Anticyclones

Symbol on a weather map = H or High

Generally results in fair weather (No rain or snow, depending on season)

Low Pressure Centers

Called Cyclones

Symbol on a weather map = L or Low

Generally results in poor weather (rain or snow, depending on season)

Hurricanes and Tornadoes represent centers of extremely low pressure.

All tornadoes are cyclones, but not all cyclones are tornadoes.

Weather Map

Constantly changes from day to day as pressure centers are on the move (West to East).

Wind

Wind and Air pressure are intimately linked.

Wind: Air in motion. It is a vector quantity, meaning we have to measure speed and direction.

Anemometer: An instrument for measuring the speed of the wind, or of any current of gas.

Consists of 3 cups that freely spin, the faster the wind is blowing, the faster the spinning. That information is transferred and measured. The faster the wind, the faster the cups spin, the faster the speed shows.

Wind speed is reported in MPH for us. Weather service measures wind speed in knots.

A wind vane/weather vane is an instrument used for showing the direction of the wind.

Wind direction is always expressed by the direction FROM which the wind is blowing.

If the weather channel says there is a North wind, the wind is coming FROM the North

These instruments should be mounted up high, so there is nothing blocking them.

Hand held Anemometer

Used to determine wind speed out in the field.

Wind sock

Used in aviation (smaller airports, private planes) Wind enters large opening, funnels through to small opening on the other end.

Measures the direction the wind is blowing TO.

Factors affecting wind speed

Steepness of pressure gradient:

Pressure Gradient: The difference between high pressure and low pressure.

If there is a big difference between high pressure and low pressure (Steeper gradient), the air is going to move very fast. Same idea for other way around.

Friction:

Slows wind speed down

Nature of surface plays a role in friction

Factors affecting wind direction

Pressure Gradient Orientation:

The surface arrangement of the pressure centers.

Pressure centers are constantly on the move. As they move, they change the direction of wind

Wind is ALWAYS going to blow from the HIGH to the LOW.

Coriolis Force (Sometimes called Coriolis Effect):

The deflection in the course of a moving object, especially gases and fluids, brought about by the rotation of the Earth.

Effects ALL moving objects, but especially gases and fluids.

Deflection is to the right of the intended path in the Northern Hemisphere; to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

The strength of the Coriolis force increases with increasing latitude.

Non existent at the Equator; In full force at the poles.

Geography 10/25/23

Coriolis Force: The Deflection in the course of a moving object, especially gases and fluids, brought about by the rotation of the Earth.

Deflection is to the right of the intended path in the Northern Hemisphere; To the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

The strength of the Coriolis Force increases with increasing latitude

Non existent at the equator; in full force at the poles.

'H' Indicates point of highest pressure (All areas around that will be lower pressure).

Divergence: The process of air moving AWAY from a specific location. Convergence: The process of air moving TOWARD a specific location.

Northern Hemisphere: Clockwise airflow around high pressure centers. Southern Hemisphere: Counter clockwise airflow around high pressure centers.

Conterminous: Having a common border. Refers to United States (Excluding Alaska and Hawaii)

Geography 10/27/23

Major Surface Wind Systems

Trade Winds: Best developed wind system in the world.

Blow between the 2 strongest pressure belts (Subtropical Highs and Equatorial Lows).

Most extensively developed wind system (cover more surface than any other wind system).

Consistent in both speed and direction.

Excellent sailing winds.

Westerlies

Winds of the temperate world

Wind of the conterminous United States

All of our weather systems come from the west

Polar Easterlies

Weakest of the major surface wind systems

They blow between the two weakest pressure belts

Affect no major population centers

Winds Within the Pressure Belts

Equatorial Low: Strong winds with thunderstorms, otherwise calm. Sometimes referred to as the "doldrums" or "ITCZ" (Intertropical convergence zone).

Polar Highs: Generally light winds although sometimes strong in Antarctica.

Subpolar Lows: Strong winds associated with storms, otherwise calm.

Subtropical Highs: Characterized by variable light winds and calms. Sometimes referred to as the "Horse Latitudes".

Wind Speed

Wind Records are usually based on estimates of damage (wind speeds are too high and damage anemometers).

Sustained Wind: Constant speed, no let up.

Gust: A momentary increase in wind speed.

Hurricanes: Typically 75-120 MPH, optimally 200 MPH Tornadoes: Typically 100-250 MPH, optimally 300-400 MPH Highest sustained surface wind ever recorded - 231 MPH (Recorded at the top of Mount Washington).

Tornadoes have stronger winds but affect smaller areas.

100 MPH is sufficient to flip an automobile.

Mount Washington is the highest peak in the Presidential Range.

The Presidential Range refers to a prominent mountain range located in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, USA. It is named after the U.S. presidents, and it includes several notable peaks, with the highest being Mount Washington, which is famous for its extreme weather conditions.

Moisture

Humidity: General term referring to the moisture in the air.

Water Vapor (Primary Greenhouse Gas) Invisible, Colorless, Odorless, Tasteless.

3 Expressions of HumidityL Absolute Humidity Specific Humidity Relative Humidity (This is the one we hear when we get weather reports)

Relative Humidity: The ratio of the amount of water vapor actually in the air (at time of measurement) to the maximum amount that the air can hold at that temperature (Expressed in %). Example: Weather report says 63% relative humidity, means the air is holding 63% of the water vapor that it can hold.

2 ways to change relative humidity: Add or subtract water vapor Change temperature

Dew Point: The temperature at which relative humidity reaches 100% (Sometimes called the Dew Point Temperature).

Geography 10/30/23

Monsoon: A seasonally reversing wind flow system characteristic of South and South East Asia

Results in a rainy Summer and a dry Winter

On-shore winds in the Summer (From ocean to land) Off-shore winds in the Winter (From land to ocean)

Reversing Wind Flow

Monsoon Flooding

Monsoon Tendency gives us our humid Summers

The Jet Stream: Serves as the steering current for surface weather disturbances.

Storms form along the polar front, low pressure centers form along the polar front.

Polar front is constantly undulating

Winds in jet stream can vary from 50 MPH to 250 MPH

Pressure Belts shift northward in summer, and shift southward in winter.

The Sahel is a region in Africa that spans across the northern part of the continent, just south of the Sahara Desert. It is a transitional zone between the arid Sahara to the north and the savannas and more fertile areas to the south.

Going over relative humidity

Phase Changes of Water

In melting and evaporation, heat energy is absorbed, so they are cooling processes.

When gaseous water vapor turns to liquid and when liquid freezes to solid, heat is released.

Storms get energy from heat released when water vapor condenses.

Evaporation and Condensation have much more heat energy.

Warm air holds more water vapor than cold air!

As temperature goes up, the air can hold more and more water vapor. As temperature goes down, the air can hold less and less water vapor.

Usual case: Lowest relative humidity in late afternoon and highest relative humidity in early morning.

Products of Condensation: Dew (Surface level form of condensation. Ex: Water on wind shield in morning) Fog (Collection of countless microscopic particles of water, so tiny that they remain suspended) Clouds (Same as fog, just different location, off ground) Rain/Drizzle (Molecules of water falling)

Only difference between Cloud and Fog: Cloud has to be detatched from ground. Location is different.

Products of Sublimation: Frost (Ice crystals formed directly on cold surfaces) Snow (Ice crystals falling from the sky) Ice Crystal Clouds (Cirrus) (Clouds made up entirely of ice crystals)

Geography 11/1/23

6 Precipitation Types

Precipitation: General term used to describe water falling from Atmosphere.

Rain Drizzle Sleet - Tiny particles of ice falling from atmosphere. Occurs usually between rain to snow or snow to rain. Good indicator of improving or deteriorating weather conditions. Freezing Rain - Rain that hits the surface as rain, and immediately freezes (Freezes on contact with the surface). (Winter only type of precipitation) Snow Hail - Ice falling from atmosphere (Summer only type of precipitation). To produce hail, there needs to be a severe thunderstorm. Can range from BB size to Baseball size.

Rain Gauge - A meteorological instrument used to measure the amount of precipitation, typically rainfall, that has fallen over a specific area during a specified period of time. Funnel that directs the collected rainwater into a graduated container or measuring tube. The depth of the water in the measuring tube provides an accurate measurement of the rainfall in millimeters or inches, depending on the scale used.

Precipitation records are always kept in liquid form.

Geography 11/6/23

Exam 2 - 11/17

Hydrologic Cycle (The Water Cycle)

The Hydrologic Cycle: The continuous or cyclical path of water from the Earth to the atmosphere and back to the surface.

Importance: The Hydrologic Cycle replenishes our water supply. If there is no Hydrologic Cycle, there would be no fresh water. All living things need fresh water.

Aquifers

3 Lakes that supply water in Baltimore:

Liberty Lake

Pretty boy reservoir

Loch raven dam

Submersible Well Pump

Well Pump System

Septic Tank:

Conventional Septic System:

Writing Assignment - Due December 6th

Clouds

Categories of Clouds: Low, Middle, High, and Clouds of Vertical Extent

Cumulous Clouds - Flat bottoms represent atmospheric dew point

Cirrus Clouds:

High altitude clouds.

Made up of ice crystals.

Usually precede a warm front (means rain or snow is coming).

Cumulonimbus Cloud

Dense, towering vertical cloud, typically forming from water vapor condensing in the lower troposphere that builds upward carried by powerful buoyant air currents.

Altitude: 2,000-52,000 ft

Contrails

Formed by jets.

Rising Air (Characteristics):

Temperature goes down

Pressure goes down

Volume expands

Relative humidity goes up

Descending Air (Characteristics):

Temperature goes up

Pressure goes up

Volume contracts

Relative humidity goes down

Geography 11/8/23

4 Types of Atmospheric Lifting:

Orographic Lifting - The rising of air over high mountains.

'Oro' as a prefix has to do with mountains

Frontal Lifting - The rising of air over weather fronts.

Fronts on a weather map:

Cold air and warm air do not get along

Warm air is always going to rise relative to the cold.

Convectional Lifting - The spontaneous rising of heated air.

Cyclonic Lifting - The upward spiral of air into the low of a well developed storm.

The characteristic of tornadoes and hurricanes.

reminder to get my vaccines

Factors affecting Precipitation Distribution

Latitude (Pressure Belts)

High Pressure Belts - N & S Subtropical Highs - N & S Polar Highs - Fair weather - Little precipitation Low Pressure Belts - Equatorial Low - N & S Subpolar Lows - Por weather - More precipitation

Continentality - Term used to describe how deep within a continent a place is located.

Example: Maryland is a coastal location, whereas Kansas is in the middle of the conterminous US.

The farther away from an ocean, the less water vapor and vise versa:

Continental Locations - Drier - Farther from oceanic water vapor source Coastal Locations - Wetter - Closer to oceanic water vapor source

Ocean Currents - Temperature of the water in the current effects the temperature of the air above the current.

Warm ocean currents flow along East coasts - East costs generally wetter Cold ocean currents flow along west coasts - West coasts generally drier

Mountain Barriers (Rainshadow Effect)

Found in high mountain regions - Windward side (facing the wind) - wetter - Leeward side (facing away from the wind) - Drier

Rainshadow Effect

Temperate Rain Forest: A type of woodland that is characterized by heavy rainfall and a mild climate. It is usually located within the temperate zone and is dominated by a mix of broad-leaved or coniferous trees. The temperate rainforest is distinguished from a tropical rainforest by the presence of a dominant tree.

World Precipitation Map

Isohyet - Lines that connect points of equal precipitation.

Precipitation plays a big role in agriculture.

Precipitation Variability - How much precipitation varies month to month, year to year. Plays a big role on what is grown in various parts of the world.

As we get farther West (more continental), precipitation variability is greater.

Air Masses

Air Mass - A large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture characteristics.

Uniform Temperature Characteristic means if it is a cold air mass, it will be cold throughout.

Uniform Moisture Characteristic means if it is a wet air mass, it will be wet throughout.

Most Important Air Masses for the U.S.

- Maritime Tropical

- Maritime Polar

- Continental Polar

Types of Fronts

- Cold Front

- Warm Front

- Occluded Front

- Stationary Front

Geography 11/10/23

Front: Leading edge of an air mass; boundary between warm and cold air.

Cold Front: Cold air moves into warm air Occluded: Cold front catches up to and merges with a warm front. Marks the end of the midlatitude cyclone. Stationary: Fronts stop moving, airmasses and fronts stop moving. Warm front: Warm air moves into cold air

Mid Latitude Cyclone

DJ KAHLED ANOTHA ONE

Hurricanes

Hurricane: A well developed whirl of air around a calm eye. Hurricane Season June 1st to November 30th

Hurricane Fran:

Hurricane Eye is characterized as completely calm weather.

Hurricanes form in all of the tropical oceans of the world except for the Tropical South Atlantic ocean.

Hurricanes only form between 6 and 30 degrees North and South. Hurricanes don't form near the equator because of the Coriolis Force, and because of the cooler water temperatures.

Storm Nomenclature

Atlantic, Gulf, and Eastern Pacific: Hurricanes

Western Pacific: Typhoons

Indian Ocean: Tropical Cyclones

Storm Categorization

Wind Speed: < 40 MPH = Tropical Depression - Assigned a number < 74 MPH = Tropical Storm - Given a name ≥ 74 MPH = Hurricane - Same name

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale:

Geography 11/13/23

4 Damaging Aspects of the Hurricane

High Winds - By definition hurricane winds must be at least 74 MPH sustained. Optimally winds can reach 200 MPH.

Torrential Rains - Rainfall amounts typically 5-10 Inches, can exceed 20 Inches, and be as great as 50-60 Inches in mountainous areas. Rain usually outlasts the storm.

Large Waves - Large breakers cause beach erosion and can damage beachfront structures.

Storm Surge (Most Damaging) - The most damaging aspects of the hurricane. Most of the great historical hurricane disasters were the result of large storm surges. Can range from a couple of feet to 30 feet.

Carolina Bite - Protects from hurricane damage in the mid atlantic except for the rain.

Tornadoes occur on all continents except antarctica.

Tornado Alley - A loosely defined location of the central United States and Canada where tornadoes are most frequent. Texas up to the Dakotas.

Fujita Scale

Tornadoes are always associated with cumulonimbus clouds.

Most tornadoes are small in size.

https://www.tornadofacts.net/tornado-scale/f0-tornado.html

Tornadoes commonly have a limited path of destruction.

Cumulonimbus clouds are associated with thunderstorms; occur in the tropics.

Squall Line - A line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a cold front. These lines are often characterized by a narrow band of intense, active thunderstorms with strong winds, heavy rain, and sometimes tornadoes. Squall lines can extend for hundreds of miles and are associated with rapidly changing weather conditions.

If you can hear the thunder: you are within 15 miles of the storm.

If you can see the lightning: count 5 seconds for every mile, starting at when you see the lightning strike, and ending count when you hear thunder.

Geography 11/15/23

Air Masses can change their characteristics as they move.

Cold Air Masses that move south might become warm; Dry air masses might become wet.

Classic Example of Air Mass Modification: Great Lakes Effect (Lake Effect).

Great Lakes Effect:

Happens in the winter time primarily.

Continental Polar Air Mass (Cold Dry Air Mass) moves southward and over the great lakes.

As dry air mass moves over lake, water in lake causes warm air to rise, causing snow to fall.

Snowbelts occur on windward side.

Great Lakes Effect is an example of Air Mass Modification.

World Climates

Climate Classification:

Climate: The long-term patterns of temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, and other atmospheric conditions in a particular region.

The Most widely used climate classification system in use is the: KOPPEN SYSTEM

One could argue that every area has its own climate.

In the Koppen Climate System, we identify a dozen major climate groups, and each major group has 2 or 3 climate types.

Map of World Climates using the Koppen System:

Humid Subtropical: Baltimore's Climate Group

Highland Climate:

A number of climates existing in close proximity.

Found in high mountainous areas.

Climate Data can be presented in a number of ways.

Climograph:

Paleoclimatology: The study of prehistoric climates.

The Last Glacial Advance:

Climate can also change by movement of continents.

Paleoclimatology

Methods of Determining Past Climates:

- Dendrochronology - Tree Ring Analysis - Oxygen Isotope Analysis - 18^O/16^O Ratio - Oceanic Sediments - Ice Cores - Pollen Analysis - Radiocarbon Dating

Geography 11/20/23

Writing Assignment due December 6th

Geologic Time

Geologic Time - The age of the Earth (4.6 Billion Years)

Geologic Time Scale

We don't know much about the Precambrian because there were not many fossils.

Dinosaurs - Dinosaurs ruled the Earth for over 200 million years. Humans have only been around for 3-4 million years.

Paleontologists can take bones found and make a reconstructed skeleton.

Archaeopteryx - Modern birds might be the descendants of dinosaurs (very similar skeletons).

Structure of the Earth

Core - (Inner and Outer) - About 4400 miles in diameter. Inner core - solid Outer core - liquid

Mantle - About 1800 miles thick. Largest portion of the Earth's interior. Rocks of the mantle exhibit a plastic type behavior (easily deformed).

Crust - 2.5-40 miles thick Thinnest under the ocean (oceanic crust) Thickest under continents (continental crust)

Both the density and temperature increase towards the center of the Earth.

Temperature of core of earth is around 5000 degrees.

Earth's temperature comes from Radioactive Decay and residual heat formation.

Geography 11/27/23

Types of Rock

Crust of Earth is made up of rock, but we don't necessarily see that rock.

Below topsoil is clay

Below clay is stones (from bedrock)

Rocks -> Minerals -> Elements

Types of rock:

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Igneous - Formed by the cooling of molten rock (occurring underground)

Granite is the best known Igneous rock.

Granite is very hard and durable.

Size of crystals is determined by the speed at which the rock cools down underground. Slower cooling = Larger crystals and Faster cooling = Smaller crystals

Basalt - The cooling is very fast, not making any visible large crystals.

Usually ground up into smaller pieces, used on railroad tracks.

Pumice - Product usually of volcanic eruptions, cooling almost immediately after eruption, trapping air in it.

Sedimentary rocks - Formed of sediments Particles of rock Shells Vegetative material

Most common sedimentary rock - Limestone

Fossiliferous Limestone At the bottom of the ocean, the sea floor is composed of shells and bones that are called ooze, but Lithify and become limestone.

Lithify - transform (a sediment or other material) into stone.

Sandstone - from the bottom of deserts, from wind blown soil is aeolian sandstone.

Coal is the lithifies remains of plants.

Metamorphic Rocks: Changed shape Most igneous and sedimentary rocks have their metamorphic counterparts.

Gneiss - Metamorphosed Granite

Schist - Has a very laminar structure

Marble - Metamorphosed Limestone

Metamorphosed is from exposed to additional stress and pressure.

Fossil Fuels

Result of prehistoric plants Coal, Oil, and Natural gas. Often found in same area together

Formed during carboniferous period

Coal Mining

Deep Shaft Mining if coal seam deep in surface. Surface Mining AKA Strip Mining when coal seam is near the surface.

Geography 11/29/23

All 3 of the fossil fuels are usually found together.

3 Major Producing Areas in the United States: Gulf of Mexico, Gulf Coast States (Particularly Texas), and the North Slope of Alaska

Trans-Atlantic Pipeline System

Keystone Pipeline

Geology of Maryland

Physiography of Maryland

Three Physiographic (Geologic) Provinces: - Atlantic Coastal Plain - Piedmont (Plateau) - Valley and Ridge

Geography 12/1/23

Atlantic Coastal Plain

In Maryland:

All of Maryland on the Delmarva Peninsula and the western shore adjacent to the bay.

Loose alluvial soils and sediments.

Delmarva Farmland: listen to recording to hear

Delmarva Poultry Farm: listen to recording to hear

Blackwater NWR (National Wildlife Refuge): Largest unbroken wetland on the east coast (26,000 acres).

Piedmont

In Maryland:

From fall line to Blue Ridge mountains

Mostly metamorphic rock

Hills and Valleys

Carroll County Piedmont

Frederick County Piedmont

Valley and Ridge Province

In Maryland:

From Blue Ridge mountains to western border of state

Mostly sedimentary rock

Garret County Farmland: Livestock principle farmland, fruit

The Narrows: A water gap

Volcanic Dyke at Mary's Rock Tunnel

a RIG originally

Fall Line

Fall Line: The Geologic boundary between the Piedmont and the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

Potomac River Upstream: Splits between Maryland and Virginia

Great Falls of the Potomac

Cultural Significance: Falling water provided as power for electricity during Industrial Revolution.

Grist Mills

Ground corn, wheat, and other grains into usable food products such as flours and meals

Many Grist Mills once existed in Baltimore County

Owing's Upper Mill (1791)

"Groff's Mill"

Oldest and largest mill building surviving in Baltimore County

Woodberry Mills in Hampden

The Woodberry Mills in their day, at the height of production, were the worlds largest manufacturers of Cotton duck

Cotton duck used in sails

Wilkins and Rodgers

Ellicott City, Maryland

Fall Line Cities

Geography 12/4/23

Landforms

Alfred Wegner

Theory of Continental Drift (1915) - Continents at one time were all together as a super continent called Pangea (All Earth).

Tectonic Plates: Massive slab of solid rock made up of Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Also called lithospheric plate.

Found the rocks in the center of Atlantic ocean were much younger than the rocks on the edge of the Atlantic ocean.

Plate Boundaries

Rift: Plates pulling away from each other.

Mid Atlantic Ridge

Plate Boundary: Boundaries between plates Rift: Plates pulling away from each other Crack forms and exposes molten Forms mid ocean ridge (under water mountain range)

Iceland: Iceland is facing a potential volcanic eruption that could happen with just 30 minutes warning. The country sits on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where two tectonic plates are moving apart. This causes magma to rise to the surface and create pressure.

Plate Collision: Plates colliding with one another.

Constant collisions

Mount Everest

Subduction Zone: One plate diving under another. Another example of plates coming together, but different from plate collision because one plate is significantly weaker than the other.

Constant collision

Pacific Ring of Fire: The coastlines of the Pacific Ocean characterized by numerous volcanoes and earthquake activity.

Numerous volcanoes and earthquakes found in this area.

Geography 12/6/23

Pacific Ring of Fire

Mount Aconcagua

Mexican Volcano

Japan's Mount Fuji

Mount Pinatubo 1991 - Largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century

Plate Boundaries continued

Transform Fault - Plates moving side to sid

San Andreas Fault - Most researched transform fault in the world, because it passes through heavily populated areas.

Earthquakes are common along active faults

Earthquake - Ground shaking energy released by sudden movement of the Earth's crust. Usually the result of displacement along a fault.

*** Seismology - The science that studies earthquakes *** Seismograph - Instrument used to record earthquakes Seismogram - A tracing of earthquake's energy

Portable Seismograph

Earthquake Terms

Focus - The underground center of motion Epicenter - The point on the Earths surface directly above the focus

Charles Richter

Richter Scale - Rating Earthquake intensity.

Open ended logarithmic scale

As you go higher up on scale, intensity of earthquakes become much higher.

Earthquake Hazards

Building Collapse

Fire

Landslides

Tsunami

Soil Liquefaction - Fill and soft sediments become liquefied due to ground shaking.

Anchorage Alaska 1964 - Highest rated earthquake on Richter Scale (9.4).

Marina District 1989 - Building collapsed, natural gas pipe ruptured.

Tsunami - Seismic sea wave generated by an earthquake under the sea floor.

Indian Ocean Tsunami - December 2004 Tohoku Earthquake - March 2011

California's Subsidiary Faults

Loma Prieta Earthquake - October 1989

New Madrid, Missouri

3 Earthquakes December 1811 - February 1812

Predicting Earthquakes - No success

Earthquakes in Maryland

Most 2 Magnitude or less

Largest Earthquake - 3.8 Phoenix, MD 1939

Many felt in Maryland occur elsewhere

Great Baltimore Fire - 1904

Downtown destroyed

Geography 12/8/23

Landform Producing Forces

Tectonic Forces - Forces that build up landforms.

Endogenetic Forces - Forces that originate from within the Earth.

Tectonic Forces

A. Diastrophism (Solid state, movement of solid rock)

1. Folding (Bending of rock)

2. Faulting (Breaking of rock)

B. Vulcanism (Molten state; 2000 degrees or more)

1. Intrusive (Movement of magma beneath the surface)

2. Extrusive (Movement of lava and other products above the surface)

Black Hills - The Black Hills is an isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States.

Mount Rushmore is here; sculpture chose this area because of the granite there.

Volcano Cutaway

Production of Eruptions

Strato volcanoes

Pyroclastic flow - A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving mixture of hot gas and volcanic matter, such as ash and rock fragments, that travels down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption. These flows are extremely dangerous and can reach high speeds (100+ MPH).

In the conterminous United States (the 48 contiguous states), you can find volcanoes primarily in the Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest. The Cascade Range extends from northern California through Oregon and Washington to southern British Columbia in Canada. Notable volcanoes in this region include Mount St. Helens, Mount Hood, Mount Rainier, and Mount Shasta.

Geography 12/11/23

Geomorphology - The study of landforms.

Gravitational Forces

Forces which wear down

Exogenetic forces (From outside the Earth)

Degradation - The wearing down of rock material

1. Weathering (Breaking down)

a. Chemical

b. Physical

Chemical Weathering occurs primarily through acid precipitation.

Pollutants mix with the water in the air to produce acid, which destroys rock when it comes in contact

Frost wedging

Plant Roots can do the same thing

Rodents also do their part

Mountain Bikes also contribute to physical weathering

2. Erosion (Removal)

a. Water

b. Wind

c. Ice

Stream Erosion

Volume plays a big role. The greater the volume of the water, the more sediments are picked up.

Wind Erosion

Only found in dry environments

Dunes

Mountain Glaciers

A glacier is a river of ice; Mountain glaciers start off in higher elevations with heavy snow, which compacts into ice and over time works it way down the slope, picking up on rocks and boulders, grinding against the ground, being transported down the slope by the ice and eventually to the ocean.

Calving - The process by which large chunks of ice break off from the edge of a glacier and fall into the water, forming icebergs.

Most of the ice from a glacier is under the water because of the density of the ice.

North American Ice Sheet

Greenland

All of the ice in Greenland will probably be gone in the next century or two

b. Aggradation (Depositing) (Aggradational Landform examples below)

1. Beaches (Example: Ocean City)

2. Deltas - Formed where a major river enter into a larger body of water; Deltas feature very fertile soil, usually flat.

3. Dunes

William Morris Davis - By training, he was a geomorphologist. His specialty was streams and rivers.

Geomorphic Cycle - Goes through stages, similar to human conditions (minus the rejuvenation stage).

Youthful Landform - MT. Everest because it is growing, getting taller

Mature Landform - The Rockies because they are not growing

Old Age Landform - Appalachian because it is slowly deteriorating. Over time, it will completely disappear. (No tectonic activity)

Rejuvenation - Plate collision can cause this