ap psych development

Essential Questions:

1. The debate over Nature vs. Nurture examines the relative influence of genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors on human behavior, with many concluding both play significant roles.

2. Behaviors and mental processes can be both individual and universal, as some traits are shaped by unique personal experiences while others are influenced by broader cultural or biological factors.

3. Genetics and inheritable characteristics greatly impact mental processes and behavior by providing a biological framework that interacts with environmental influences, potentially predisposing individuals to certain traits or behaviors.

AP3.1 Thematic Issues (Stax 9.1):

Definitions and Real-life Examples

• Nature v. NurtureDefinition: The debate over whether genetic or environmental factors are more influential in determining behavior and traits.Example: A child may inherit a genetic predisposition for musical talent (nature) but may only develop this talent if raised in a musically enriching environment (nurture).

• Continuity v. DiscontinuityDefinition: Continuity suggests that development is gradual and cumulative, while discontinuity implies that development occurs in distinct stages.Example: Language acquisition can be seen as continuous (gradually learning to speak) or discontinuous (learning distinct grammatical rules at different stages of development).

• Stability v. ChangeDefinition: Examines whether individual traits remain stable over time or change throughout one's life.Example: A person may have a stable temperament throughout life or develop different personality traits in response to life experiences.

• Developmental PsychologyDefinition: The scientific study of how and why human beings change throughout their life span.Example: Studying how children develop cognitive abilities as they grow, such as learning to solve abstract problems in adolescence.

• Twin StudiesDefinition: Research method that compares the similarities between identical twins and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics and environment.Example: Studying identical twins raised apart to see how much their behavior and choices differ due to environmental factors.

• Cross-Sectional StudyDefinition: A research method that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.Example: A study measuring the cognitive abilities of different age groups in one year to compare how aging affects cognition.

• Longitudinal StudyDefinition: A research design that follows the same subjects over an extended period to observe changes and developments.Example: Tracking the educational achievement of a group of students from kindergarten to graduation to see how early influences affect their academic performance.

AP3.2: Physical (Mod 45-46, 51-52; Stax 9.2-9.4)

Definitions and Real-life Examples

1. Genotype vs Phenotype

   • Definition: Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, while phenotype is the observable characteristics or traits resulting from the interaction of the genotype with the environment.

   • Example: A person has a genotype for brown eyes (genotype) but may have blue eyes (phenotype) due to gene expression and environmental influences, such as certain genetic disorders.

2. Chromosome

   • Definition: A chromosome is a long DNA molecule that contains many genes and is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

   • Example: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with one chromosome inherited from each parent, containing genes that determine traits such as eye color.

3. DNA

   • Definition: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule that carries the genetic instructions for life and is composed of two strands forming a double helix.

   • Example: The sequence of nucleotides in an individual's DNA determines their genetic traits, such as susceptibility to certain diseases.

4. Gene

   • Definition: A gene is a segment of DNA that contains coding for a protein or trait.

   • Example: The BRCA1 gene is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer and can be inherited, affecting an individual's probability of developing the disease.

5. Teratogen

   • Definition: A teratogen is an agent or factor that causes malformation of an embryo or fetus.

   • Example: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, resulting in physical and cognitive disabilities in the child.

6. Maternal Illness

   • Definition: Maternal illness refers to health conditions affecting a woman during pregnancy that may impact fetal development.

   • Example: Diabetes in a pregnant woman can influence the baby's birth weight and risk of developing health issues.

7. Genetic Mutation

   • Definition: A genetic mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that can lead to altered traits or diseases.

   • Example: The sickle cell gene mutation affects hemoglobin in red blood cells, resulting in sickle cell disease, which can cause various health complications.

8. Visual Cliff (Gibson)

   • Definition: The visual cliff is a laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants and young animals.

   • Example: In experiments, babies were placed on a glass surface that appeared to drop off to test whether they would crawl over the "cliff"; most showed hesitation, indicating depth perception.

9. Reflexes (examples/debate)

   • Definition: Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought.

   • Example: The knee-jerk reflex is a common example, where tapping the patellar tendon causes the leg to kick out automatically.

10. Motor (gross vs. fine)

    • Definition: Gross motor skills involve large muscle groups for large movements, while fine motor skills involve smaller muscle groups for tasks requiring precision.

    • Example: Riding a bike involves gross motor skills, whereas buttoning a shirt requires fine motor skills.

11. (5) Stages of Death and Dying (Kubler-Ross)

    • Definition: The five stages of grief identified by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

    • Example: A person diagnosed with terminal illness may first experience denial (e.g., refusing to believe the diagnosis) before moving through the stages.

12. Mutual Support Groups

    • Definition: Mutual support groups are collective gatherings of individuals providing emotional and practical support to one another typically regarding shared experiences.

    • Example: A cancer support group where patients share coping strategies and emotional support during treatment.

13. Physical Decline

    • Definition: Physical decline refers to the deterioration of physical abilities and health typically associated with aging.

    • Example: Older adults may experience decreased mobility and flexibility, leading to more falls and difficulties in performing daily activities.

14. Mobility

    • Definition: Mobility is the ability to move freely and easily; it often declines with age due to various health conditions.

    • Example: An elderly person using a walker to assist with moving around safely.

15. Flexibility

    • Definition: Flexibility is the range of motion around a joint.

    • Example: A yoga practitioner may demonstrate high flexibility by performing poses that require bending and stretching.

16. Reaction Time

    • Definition: Reaction time is the interval between perceiving a stimulus and responding to it.

    • Example: A driver needing to brake quickly upon seeing a red light must have good reaction time to avoid an accident.

17. Sensory Ability

    • Definition: Sensory ability refers to the capacity to use sensory organs for perception (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell).

    • Example: An elderly person may experience a decline in sensory ability, such as reduced hearing and visual acuity.

18. Social Clock

    • Definition: Social clock is the societal expectations for when major life events should occur, such as marriage or retirement.

    • Example: Many cultures expect individuals to marry in their 20s, affecting personal life choices.

19. Menopause

    • Definition: Menopause is the time in a woman's life when menstrual periods permanently stop, marking the end of reproductive capacity.

    • Example: A woman in her late 40s to early 50s may experience symptoms such as hot flashes and mood swings as she transitions into menopause.

AP3.3.A: Sex and Gender (Mod 49, 53)

**Primary Sex Characteristics**: Refers to the physical features directly involved in reproduction, such as the vagina and uterus in females or the penis and testes in males. *Example*: Females have ovaries that produce eggs, while males have testes that produce sperm.

**Puberty**: The period during which adolescents develop secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive maturity. *Example*: A girl begins menstruating around age 12-13, whereas a boy may experience voice deepening and growth of facial hair around ages 12-14. *

*Secondary Sex Characteristics**: Traits not directly involved in reproduction that develop during puberty, such as body hair and breast development. *Example*: In females, the development of breasts and widening hips; in males, increased muscle mass and deeper voice.

**Menarche**: The first occurrence of menstruation in females. *Example*: A girl might experience menarche around age 12. *

*Spermarche**: The first occurrence of ejaculation in males. *Example*: A boy typically experiences spermarche during the early stages of puberty, around ages 11-14.

**Sexual Orientation**: A person's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others, which can be towards the same sex, opposite sex, or both. *Example*: A person who is attracted to individuals of the same gender is considered to have a homosexual orientation. **

Gender Identity**: An individual's personal sense of their gender, which may or may not align with their biological sex. *Example*: A person assigned female at birth may identify as male, non-binary, or genderqueer.

**Gender Roles**: The societal norms dictating behaviors, activities, and expectations appropriate for men and women. *Example*: Traditional gender roles often suggest that men should be breadwinners and women should be caregivers. *

*Gender Differences**: The perceived or actual differences in behavior, preferences, and characteristics between males and females. *Example*: Studies often find that females may excel in verbal tasks while males may perform better in spatial tasks.

AP3.4: Cognitive (Mod 47; Stax 9.2)

Jean Piaget's Key Terms

1. SensorimotorDefinition: The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, where infants learn through interaction with their environment using their senses and actions.Example: An infant playing with toys and discovering that shaking a rattle creates sound.

2. Object PermanenceDefinition: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.Example: A baby looking for a toy that has been covered, showing they know it still exists.

3. PreoperationalDefinition: The second stage of cognitive development, lasting from approximately age 2 to 7, characterized by the development of language and imagination.Example: A child using crayons to draw a picture of a house, demonstrating creativity.

4. AssimilationDefinition: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing them.Example: A child who knows the schema for a dog might call a cat a dog if it has similar features.

5. AccommodationDefinition: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information.Example: The same child learns that a cat is not a dog and adapts their schema appropriately.

6. Mental SymbolsDefinition: The ability to use words, images, or symbols to represent objects or experiences.Example: A child using a toy phone to imitate making a call.

7. Pretend PlayDefinition: Play that involves the use of imagination to create scenarios and roles.Example: Children playing house where they act as parents, cooks, and children.

8. ConservationDefinition: The understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in form or appearance.Example: Recognizing that a ball of clay maintains the same amount of clay when flattened.

9. ReversibilityDefinition: The understanding that actions can be reversed to restore the original state.Example: A child knowing that pouring water from one glass to another can be reversed by pouring it back.

10. AnimismDefinition: The belief that objects, animals, and plants have feelings and intentions.Example: A child talking to their stuffed animal as if it were alive.

11. EgocentrismDefinition: The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others.Example: A child covering their eyes and believing that others cannot see them.

12. Theory of MindDefinition: The understanding that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own.Example: A child recognizing that a friend might feel sad about losing a toy even if they themselves are not sad.

13. Concrete OperationalDefinition: The third stage of cognitive development, where children aged 7 to 11 begin to think logically about concrete events.Example: A child solving math problems with physical objects like blocks.

14. RealisticDefinition: Referring to thinking based on actual situations rather than possibilities.Example: Understanding that food does not magically appear and must be prepared or bought.

15. LogicalDefinition: Involving reasoning and the ability to form valid conclusions based on given information.Example: A student using logical sequences to solve a math equation.

16. SystematicDefinition: The ability to follow a sequence and methodically approach problem-solving.Example: A child organizing their toys by size and color consistently.

17. Formal OperationalDefinition: The fourth and final stage of cognitive development, starting from age 12, where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.Example: A teenager discussing philosophical questions and considering future possibilities.

18. Hypothetical / AbstractDefinition: Involving the ability to think about possibilities that are not grounded in immediate reality.Example: A student proposing a scientific experiment to test an unproven theory.

19. Renee Ballarenn (critical)Definition: A scholar who critiqued Piaget's stages, emphasizing cultural and social influences on cognitive development.Example: Highlighting how children in different cultures may reach cognitive milestones at different ages.

20. Lev Vygotsky (critical)Definition: A psychologist whose work emphasizes the social influences on cognitive development, particularly the importance of language and cultural context.Example: Advocating for collaborative learning environments where children learn from one another.

21. Social ContextDefinition: The environment and culture surrounding a child that influences their cognitive and emotional development.Example: A child learning social norms through interactions in a diverse classroom.

22. ScaffoldingDefinition: A teaching method that involves providing support to help learners accomplish tasks they cannot do independently.Example: A teacher giving hints and guidance while a student learns to solve complex math problems.

23. Zone of Proximal DevelopmentDefinition: The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance.Example: A child mastering a new skill with the assistance of a more knowledgeable peer or adult.

AP3.6: Social-Emotional (Mod 48, 51-52; Stax 9.3)

Definitions and Real-life Examples

Imprinting (Lorenz)Definition: A rapid learning process by which young animals recognize and follow the first moving object they see, typically their mother.Example: Ducklings following the first person or object they see after hatching, believing it to be their mother.

Strange Situation (Ainsworth)Definition: A structured observational study used to assess the quality of attachment between a child and their caregiver.Example: A child is observed during a series of separations and reunions with their mother in a controlled environment to determine attachment style.

Stranger/Separation Anxiety (Bowlby)Definition: Emotional distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregiver or when encountering an unfamiliar person.Example: A toddler becomes visibly upset and cries when their mother leaves a room or is approached by a stranger.

Attachment (4 Types)Definition: The emotional bond that develops between a child and their caregiver, categorized into four types: secure, avoidant, resistant (anxious), and disorganized.Example: A securely attached child feels safe to explore their environment but seeks comfort from their caregiver when needed.

TemperamentDefinition: The innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts to the environment.Example: A naturally cheerful child who adapts easily to new situations versus a more introverted child who needs time to adjust.

Contact Comfort (Harlow)Definition: The physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from touching and being close to its caregiver.Example: Baby monkeys preferentially clinging to a soft, cloth mother figure for comfort rather than a wire mother that provides food.

Parallel PlayDefinition: A form of play where children play alongside each other but do not interact directly.Example: Two toddlers playing with blocks next to each other without sharing or engaging with one another.

Birth Order Theory (Adler)Definition: A theory that suggests birth order can influence personality and behavior traits.Example: Firstborn children may be more responsible and achievement-oriented, while later-born children may be more rebellious and creative.

ACES (Adverse Childhood Experiences)Definition: Traumatic events occurring during childhood that can have lasting negative effects on health and behavior.Example: Experiencing neglect, abuse, or household dysfunction during childhood can lead to increased health risks in adulthood.

Peer RelationshipsDefinition: The relationships that children form with their peers, which can significantly influence social development.Example: A child playing and forming bonds with classmates during recess can help develop social skills.

Socio-Cultural DifferencesDefinition: Variations in beliefs, practices, and values across different social and cultural groups.Example: Attitudes towards education may differ in families from various cultural backgrounds, influencing children's academic performance.

Parenting Styles (Baumrind)Definition: The typical strategies parents use in raising their children, categorized into authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved.Example: An authoritative parent sets clear expectations while allowing open communication and independence, leading to well-adjusted children.

Personal Fable (Elkind)Definition: The belief held by adolescents that they are unique and invincible, leading to risky behavior.Example: A teenager thinking that they won't get into trouble for drinking and driving because they are somehow special.

Imaginary Audience (Elkind)Definition: The phenomenon where adolescents believe that they are constantly being observed and judged by others.Example: A teenager feeling self-conscious and worrying about their appearance in public as if everyone is paying attention to them.

Erik Erikson - Crises (8)Definition: A theory outlining eight stages of psychosocial development that individuals navigate throughout their lives, each involving a conflict to be resolved.Example: During adolescence, the crisis of identity vs. role confusion involves exploring personal beliefs and social roles.

Ecological Systems Theory (5 systems)Definition: A framework proposed by Bronfenbrenner that describes how a child's development is influenced by various environmental systems, including individual, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.Example: A child's development is affected by immediate family interactions (microsystem) and larger societal influences (macrosystem).