Progressive Era Notes

Jack London described society in "terrific flux" in his 1908 novel "The Iron Heel." 

The novel depicts a corporate oligarchy ruling the United States amid swift changes in industrial systems. 

The Gilded Age presented numerous problems: 

Unprecedented wealth and poverty 

Controversies over imperialism 

Urban squalor and labor-capital conflicts 

Loosening social mores and unsanitary food production 

Foreign immigration and environmental destruction 

Political radicalism 

Farmers and workers had long fought against capitalists and political conservatives. 

By the late 19th century, a new middle-class generation began advocating for reforms. 

The Progressive Era emerged from widespread dissatisfaction with societal trends. 

Various progressive movements sought to address different issues and interests. 

Reformers aimed to clean up politics, advocate for civil rights, and demand social equality and labor rights. 

The term "reform" defined the era, reflecting the diverse goals and efforts of those involved. 

The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire occurred in 1911 in Manhattan. 

Factory doors were chained shut to prevent unauthorized breaks, trapping over 200 women. 

A faulty fire ladder collapsed, forcing women to jump from the building. 

71 workers were injured, and 146 died as a result of the fire. 

The owners prioritized profits over safety, dismissing workers' demands for better conditions. 

After the fire, owners Max Blanck and Isaac Harris were acquitted of manslaughter charges. 

The incident highlighted the lack of accountability for business owners regarding worker safety. 

The fire spurred public demand for reform and increased political activism. 

Muckrakers, journalists who exposed corruption and poor conditions, played a key role in raising awareness. 

Jacob Riis's book "How the Other Half Lives" documented urban poverty and led to housing reforms. 

Upton Sinclair's novel "The Jungle" revealed unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry, resulting in the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. 

The growing awareness of these issues contributed to the push for social and economic reforms in America. 

Raising Questions About American Society: 

Journalists and writers questioned the state of American society. 

Edward Bellamy's 1888 novel "Looking Backward" became a national sensation. 

The novel depicts a man who falls asleep in 1887 and wakes up in 2000, finding a utopian society free of poverty and disease. 

Bellamy's vision inspired readers and led to the formation of numerous Bellamy clubs advocating for reform. 

Critical Reflection on Freedom: 

The text critiques the notion of freedom in the 19th century, highlighting personal dependence among various societal groups. 

Influence of Preachers and Theologians: 

Many Americans were motivated by religious figures to consider social issues, often asking, "What Would Jesus Do?" 

Charles Sheldon published "In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do?" in 1896, which tells the story of a pastor addressing social responsibility towards the poor. 

Emergence of the Social Gospel Movement: 

The social gospel emerged within Protestant Christianity at the end of the 19th century, emphasizing societal salvation rather than just individual souls. 

Advocates encouraged Christians to engage with and challenge social, political, and economic structures. 

Walter Rauschenbusch's Advocacy: 

A prominent figure in the social gospel movement, Rauschenbusch began his ministry in Hell’s Kitchen, NYC, addressing crime and poverty. 

He believed in the need for a new theological framework that incorporated societal issues, reviving the concept of the "Kingdom of God." 

Rauschenbusch urged all Christians to consider their role in enacting the Kingdom of God in their daily lives. 

The social gospel expands on the traditional message of salvation, emphasizing both individual and collective sin. 

Individualistic gospel highlights personal sin and God's power to save individuals, but neglects social sin and institutional oppression. 

The social gospel aims to promote collective repentance and a modern conscience regarding social injustices. 

It emphasizes the need for faith in God's ability to redeem societal institutions from inherited guilt. 

Many social gospel advocates had blind spots, particularly regarding women's rights and the issues faced by African Americans, Native Americans, and other marginalized groups. 

The writings of figures like Rauschenbusch significantly impacted twentieth-century American life, driving progressive reforms. 

The social gospel also inspired future activists, such as Martin Luther King Jr., who sought a vision of a "beloved community" similar to Rauschenbusch’s "Kingdom of God." 

Reform movements in America opened new avenues for women's activism and energized the fight for women's suffrage. 

Female "clubs" emerged as social organizations focusing on intellectual development and philanthropic activities, increasingly engaging with community and political issues. 

Women's clubs thrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading to the formation of national federations in the 1890s. 

Significant organizations included the General Federation of Women’s Clubs (established in 1890) and the National Association of Colored Women (established in 1896), primarily composed of upper-middle-class, educated, northern women. 

Racial tensions led to limited biracial participation in these organizations, reflecting historical divides between white and African American women. 

Black women formed their own organizations to advocate for civil rights and suffrage, such as those led by Mary Jane Richardson Jones and Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin. 

The National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs was founded to support suffrage and combat discrimination, fostering networks for Black women's activism. 

Some women engaged in moral reform through churches or acted as vigilantes, exemplified by Carrie A. Nation, who gained notoriety for destroying saloons in Kansas. 

Nation's actions, including a dramatic incident at the Carey Hotel, drew national attention and showcased the activism of women in the temperance movement. 

Few women followed in the footsteps of temperance activist Carry Nation; many opted for more reputable organizations. 

Nation founded a chapter of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), but was criticized as “unwomanly and unchristian” by its leaders. 

The WCTU was established in 1874 to combat the issues of drunkenness. 

From 1879 to 1898, Frances Willard revitalized the WCTU, turning it into a national political organization with a broad reform agenda. 

WCTU members worked on various social issues, including urban poverty relief, prison reform, the eight-hour workday, child labor laws, and "home protection." 

Temperance and the prohibition of alcohol were central focuses of the WCTU’s efforts. 

Alcohol was viewed as a cause of social problems such as domestic abuse, poverty, crime, and disease. 

Reformers linked alcohol to rising divorce rates and associated it with cities and immigrant populations, negatively portraying these groups. 

The belief was that eliminating alcohol would lead to social progress and reduce the need for prisons and asylums. 

Jane Addams emerged as a prominent female activist from the club movement and temperance campaigns. 

Born in 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois, Addams experienced early loss but was supported by her father. 

She attended Rockford Female Seminary and sought practical strategies for social reform. 

After a tour of Europe, inspired by English settlement houses, Addams founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889 with Ellen Gates Starr. 

The Settlement is an experimental initiative aimed at addressing social and industrial issues in urban environments. 

It recognizes that these problems affect all areas of the city and seeks to alleviate disparities between social classes. 

The philosophy behind the initiative is based on the solidarity of the human race, regardless of individual circumstances. 

Hull House, a key community center, provided various services including nursery, kindergarten, classes for parents, and cultural events. 

Florence Kelley, a significant reformer, influenced Jane Addams to engage in social reform efforts. 

Hull House highlighted poor conditions in local sweatshops and advocated for worker organization, labeling urban poverty and industrialization as a “social crime.” 

Addams and Kelley pushed for antisweatshop legislation to limit work hours for women and children. 

Despite her reform efforts, Addams maintained a cautious stance on more radical policies, promoting cooperation between social classes instead. 

Addams gained prominence, becoming the first woman to give a nominating speech at a major party convention in 1912. 

Her advocacy expanded to international issues, opposing militarism and advocating for social reform and pacifism. 

In 1907, Addams published "Newer Ideals of Peace," establishing her philosophical stance on pacifism. 

She was a prominent opponent of U.S. involvement in World War I and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. 

The women's suffrage movement marked a significant shift in women's roles in American public life, with notable successes in the West by 1911. 

Women's suffrage was linked to various reform efforts, with suffragists believing that women's votes were essential for improving politics and addressing social issues. 

By the 1890s, the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) became the largest women's organization in America and endorsed suffrage. 

The Women's Trade Union League (WTUL) was formed in 1903 by working-class and middle- to upper-class women, advocating for voting rights alongside the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). 

WTUL members viewed suffrage as a means to advance economic interests and gain respect for working-class women, exemplified by Rose Schneiderman’s quote on labor rights. 

Some suffragists promoted a more divisive message, arguing that white women's votes were necessary to uphold white supremacy and counteract Black voters, extending their arguments to international politics. 

Despite differing messages, the suffrage campaign was gaining momentum. 

The final push for suffrage occurred before World War I, with NAWSA focusing on state voting laws and a constitutional amendment. 

The National Woman’s Party, led by Alice Paul, adopted a militant approach, organizing marches and protests, including picketing the White House, resulting in the arrest of over 150 women. 

President Woodrow Wilson publicly supported the women's suffrage amendment in January 1918, leading to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment two years later. 

After gaining the right to vote, women from diverse backgrounds mobilized to participate in elections, influenced by the promise of change and concerns for the future. 

The suffrage movement coincided with a transition to a more industrial and urban America, giving rise to a new American culture. 

Herbert Croly's book "The Promise of American Life" highlights issues of power and wealth in society during the Progressive Era. 

Croly argues that corrupt politicians and wealthy trusts have usurped power from the people. 

Reformers, including Croly, believe wealth inequality threatens democracy and seek to restore power to the populace. 

Trusts are defined as monopolies or cartels formed by large corporations during the Gilded and Progressive Eras. 

These trusts engaged in agreements or consolidations to control specific products or industries exclusively. 

Certain monopolies related to intellectual property (like copyrights and patents) are constitutionally protected. 

The dominance of powerful entities over national markets was a new and concerning issue for many Americans. 

The 1870s and 1880s saw rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and urban growth, leading to changes in business structures. 

The Second Industrial Revolution was fueled by natural resources, immigration-driven labor growth, increasing capital, new legal entities, innovative production strategies, and a national market. 

The federal government's laissez-faire economic policy facilitated the growth of major trusts like Carnegie Steel and Standard Oil. 

Trusts utilized vertical integration (Carnegie) and horizontal integration (Rockefeller) to dominate markets, leading to criticisms of price inflation, intimidation of competitors, and political corruption. 

Between 1897 and 1904, over 4,000 companies consolidated into 257 firms, with 318 trusts controlling 40% of US manufacturing assets by 1904. 

The era marked the rise of monopolies and the emergence of "robber barons" like Carnegie and Rockefeller, prompting calls for regulation. 

Big businesses in various sectors posed challenges for the American legal system, traditionally regulated at the state level. 

The expansion of railroads and mass-producing corporations raised questions about regulatory authority across state lines. 

In response, many states enacted laws to curb corporate power; farmers formed organizations advocating for Granger laws to regulate railroads. 

The U.S. Supreme Court upheld state regulations in cases like Munn v. Illinois, asserting that companies affecting public interest could be regulated for the common good. 

Federal government granted exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce and national businesses. 

The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 established the Interstate Commerce Commission to address discriminatory pricing. 

The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 aimed to limit anticompetitive practices and declared certain monopolies illegal. 

The act defined illegal monopolies as those that "unreasonably" stifle free trade; however, vague language led to its misuse against labor unions. 

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914 sought to close loopholes in earlier legislation. 

Theodore Roosevelt, a reform-minded Republican president, took a proactive approach to trust regulation after assuming office in 1901. 

Roosevelt aimed to mediate between labor unions and corporate executives, advocating for antitrust legislation. 

He distinguished between "good" and "bad" trusts, believing the state had a duty to control monopolies. 

Roosevelt's first major action targeted the Northern Securities Company, a holding trust manipulating railroad shares. 

His administration successfully sued the Northern Securities Company, leading to its disbandment in 1904. 

In 1906, Roosevelt signed the Hepburn Act, empowering the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate railroad practices and rates. 

Roosevelt focused on regulating corporations rather than breaking them apart. 

After Roosevelt, William Howard Taft emphasized court-oriented trust busting, doubling the number of monopoly breakups during his presidency compared to Roosevelt's tenure. 

Taft targeted U.S. Steel, the first billion-dollar corporation formed from major steel producers' consolidation. 

The 1912 election was heavily influenced by trust busting and monopoly regulation. 

Roosevelt left the Republican Party after it renominated Taft and formed the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party. 

Taft viewed monopolies broadly as illegal, while Roosevelt favored regulating existing corporations through his New Nationalism program. 

Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic nominee, promoted small-business incentives in his New Freedom agenda. 

After winning the election, Wilson aligned more with Roosevelt's views, leading to the signing of the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914. 

The Clayton Act enhanced the Sherman Act, addressing mergers, price discrimination, and protecting labor's collective bargaining rights. 

The Federal Trade Commission was established to enforce the Clayton Act. 

The commitment to antitrust law varied among Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson, driven by political pressure from workers, farmers, and progressive writers. 

Industrial capitalism caused unprecedented environmental destruction in history. 

Professional bison hunting nearly led to the extinction of the species. 

Industrial logging companies devastated forests. 

Chemical plants contaminated regional water supplies. 

As industrialization expanded westward, reformers began advocating for environmental protections. 

Historians identify preservation and conservation as two competing strategies among environmental reformers during the Progressive Era. 

The Hetch Hetchy Valley debate exemplified the conflict between preservation and conservation. 

The valley's location within Yosemite National Park complicated the proposed dam project for San Francisco's water supply. 

John Muir, a preservationist, championed the valley's pristine state for its aesthetic and spiritual value. 

Gifford Pinchot, a conservationist, advocated for resource management to benefit the greatest number of people. 

Muir argued for the need for beauty in addition to basic needs, while Pinchot emphasized efficient resource use and waste prevention. 

The conservation perspective prevailed, leading to Congress approving the Hetch Hetchy project in 1913; the dam was constructed and the valley flooded for public benefit. 

Preservation was seen as an escape from urbanization and industrialization, primarily benefiting those with means. 

Conservationist policies often aligned with financial interests, prioritizing economic gain over equitable benefits. 

Example: Pennsylvania's game laws disproportionately affected Italian immigrants who relied on hunting songbirds for subsistence. 

The laws-imposed costs and regulations that favored wealthier companies and individuals, limiting access for poorer communities. 

Progressive Era environmentalism extended beyond public land management to address urban poverty and health issues. 

Reformers like Jane Addams and Florence Kelley worked on health and sanitation issues in urban environments. 

Dr. Alice Hamilton focused on investigating workplace hazards and health impacts on workers. 

Progressives emphasized the need for coordinated public services in health, waste management, and urban spaces like parks. 

Rural-focused initiatives, like the Country Life movement led by Liberty Hyde Bailey, aimed to support agrarian families and retain youth in farming communities. 

The nature study movement, initiated by Bailey and Anna Botsford Comstock, promoted environmental education and appreciation among students. 

Interconnectedness of urban and rural communities in late 19th and early 20th centuries highlighted. 

Extinction of the North American passenger pigeon exemplifies complex relationships between people and nature during the Progressive Era. 

Passenger pigeons were widely hunted and consumed in both upscale restaurants and farm kitchens. 

Hunting was done for pay or as part of competitions at sporting clubs. 

The extinction of the passenger pigeon led to nostalgia among Americans who once saw them in abundance. 

Awareness of the species' extinction prompted action, particularly among women in Audubon Society chapters. 

Women organized against the trend of using feathers, including whole birds, in fashion (e.g., hats). 

Membership in these societies was primarily from upper- and middle-class women who leveraged their social status for conservation efforts. 

Their activism contributed to the establishment of national wildlife refuges and significant regulations, such as the Lacey Act of 1900. 

Women's mobilization reflects the interplay of cultural and economic processes in the fight for bird protection. 

The examples illustrate diverse ideas, policies, and practices surrounding the definition of "American nature." 

America’s racial history was not improved during the Progressive Era; in many ways, it worsened for African Americans. 

In the South, electoral politics were marred by fraud, intimidation, and race-baiting. 

Southern Democratic candidates incited fears of "negro domination" and violence against white women. 

Racial violence and lynching became widespread and public spectacles. 

As African American voters posed a threat to Democratic dominance, southern Democrats enacted disenfranchisement and segregation. 

White southerners sought to "purify" the electoral process by restricting Black voting and legislating racial separation. 

Progressive Democrats and former Populists supported these measures to reduce racial demagoguery. 

Leaders in both the North and South endorsed white supremacy as a basis for national unity. 

The South became a model for the nation in managing nonwhite populations. 

The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited racial voter discrimination, but states sought ways to circumvent it. 

Mississippi's Democratic Party created new laws to disenfranchise Black voters, including: 

Implementing a poll tax. 

Disqualifying individuals with petty crime convictions. 

Requiring literacy tests judged by local officials. 

An "understanding clause" allowed literate whites to bypass the literacy test, leading to systematic abuse and manipulation of voting rights. 

From 1895 to 1908, southern states adopted new constitutions with disenfranchisement tools. 

Six states implemented grandfather clauses, allowing white voters who would otherwise be disenfranchised to vote, until these were struck down by the Supreme Court in 1915. 

All southern states established all-white primaries, effectively excluding Black Americans from the Democratic primary elections. 

The laws aimed to disenfranchise Black voters explicitly, as stated by Mississippi governor James Kimble Vardaman. 

Example statistics: In Alabama (1900), 121,159 literate Black men of voting age were registered to vote; only 3,742 were registered. 

In Louisiana, only 5,320 out of 130,000 Black voters participated in the 1900 elections. 

Disenfranchisement also affected some white voters, with Louisiana losing 80,000 white voters, perceived as necessary to prevent election fraud. 

Simultaneously, southern legislatures created a system of racial segregation to enforce racial subordination, particularly in urban settings. 

Segregation maintained white supremacy and was enforced in public spaces like restaurants, theaters, and schools, marking a shift from rural to urban racial control. 

The Fourteenth Amendment was interpreted by the Supreme Court to allow discrimination by individuals and businesses, not just states. 

Legal segregation began in 1888, with the landmark Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine. 

The court's ruling reflected contemporary racial assumptions and justified legal segregation despite its inherent inequality. 

Justice John Harlan dissented, advocating for a color-blind Constitution and warning against the legal endorsement of racial hatred. 

Segregation was based on the false notion of a distinct white South separate from African Americans. 

It was legally justified by the flawed doctrine of "separate but equal." 

Southern whites established a long-lasting system of white supremacy lasting nearly sixty years. 

Segregation and disenfranchisement denied Black citizenship and confined their social and cultural life to segregated spaces. 

African Americans lived dual lives, conforming to white expectations in public while maintaining their own separate communities. 

This segregation allowed for some independence for the Black middle class but harmed relations between Black and white communities. 

The structures of racism reinforced by segregation rejected the ideals of Reconstruction. 

Many Black Americans, especially during the Progressive Era, resisted these injustices. 

Activists like Ida Wells fought against lynching, while Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois competed for leadership among African American advocates. 

Booker T. Washington, born into slavery in 1856, developed a passion for education despite the challenges he faced. 

He attended Hampton University and later founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to educate Black Americans. 

Washington emphasized industrial education and vocational training to promote economic independence and self-worth among African Americans under Jim Crow. 

He engaged with white philanthropists like Andrew Carnegie to support his educational initiatives. 

Washington emerged as a prominent spokesperson for Black Americans around the turn of the twentieth century, particularly after Frederick Douglass's death in 1895. 

His "Atlanta Compromise" speech in 1895 urged Black Americans to "cast your bucket down" to improve their lives under segregation. 

Washington's speech preceded the Supreme Court's Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which legalized segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. 

He advocated for a conciliatory approach towards white supremacy, which garnered both praise and criticism; some saw him as a race leader, while others deemed him an accommodationist. 

Washington founded Tuskegee and authored influential works, including his autobiography, "Up from Slavery" (1901). 

He was involved in Black journalism and supported Black newspapers to counter the influence of his rival, W.E.B. Du Bois. 

Washington passed away in 1915 in Tuskegee, Alabama, due to ill health during World War I. 

W.E.B. Du Bois later criticized Washington's "Compromise" speech for abandoning political and social rights, recognizing Washington as sincere but misguided. 

Du Bois attacked Washington in his book "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903) but acknowledged Washington's significant impact and influence during his lifetime. 

Du Bois expressed admiration for aspects of Washington's work, despite their rivalry, and noted that many people believed he died around the same time as Washington. 

Du Bois's criticism highlights the politicized context of the Black freedom struggle and the various positions available to Black activists. 

Born in 1868 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, three years after the Civil War, Du Bois was a free person of color. 

Raised by an independent mother, his New England childhood shaped his awareness of race and instilled a belief in the power of education. 

He graduated at the top of his high school class and attended Fisk University, where he began to study the "Negro problem." 

Du Bois identified systemic racial and economic discrimination as the major issue of the twentieth century. 

After Fisk, he returned North, attended Harvard for his second degree, pursued graduate studies in Germany, and became the first Black American to earn a PhD from Harvard in 1895. 

As a leading intellectual, Du Bois produced scholarship that emphasized the humanity of African Americans. 

His work coincided with the Progressive Era, marked by social and cultural changes and global political developments. 

He taught at Wilberforce University and Atlanta University while publishing early works on the transatlantic slave trade and urban Black life. 

Notable publications include "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903) and "Darkwater" (1920), which combined historical analysis with literary drama to advocate for Black personhood and challenge white supremacy. 

Du Bois was involved in political organizing for civil rights, initially with the Niagara Movement and later with the NAACP. 

He served as editor of "The Crisis," a prominent Black publication, from 1909 to 1934. 

Du Bois criticized Booker T. Washington's approach, urging uncompromising advocacy for equal rights under the law. 

Throughout his early career, he pushed for civil rights legislation, launched legal challenges against discrimination, organized protests, and used research and writing to expose racial injustices in Progressive Era America. 

W. E. B. Du Bois emphasized that African Americans do not accept inferiority or oppression and rejected racial discrimination as barbaric. 

He believed that discrimination based on race or color is an archaic and shameful aspect of humanity. 

Du Bois advocated for persistent activism as a means to achieve liberty. 

Du Bois and Booker T. Washington had different early life experiences and philosophies regarding racial issues. 

Du Bois took a confrontational approach against white supremacy and valued social science in combating it. 

Washington favored incremental change and believed in achieving economic self-sufficiency for long-term benefits. 

Despite their differing philosophies, both leaders influenced others to advocate for America's democratic ideals. 

The Progressive Era marked a significant shift as Americans began confronting social issues through reform politics. 

Reformers aimed to bring order, efficiency, and justice to various social problems caused by industrial capitalism. 

The era showcased a mix of causes and constituencies, reflecting the complexities of American society, culture, and politics.