Cognitive Psychology: Encoding & Ability to Recall

Encoding Specificity

• Refers to how well memory retrieval is influenced by the learning context.

• The basic principle: Better recall when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding.

• Example:

  • Going from the living room to the kitchen to get scissors and forgetting the task due to a change in environment. Returning to the living room triggers memory recall.

Contextual Factors in Memory Recall

Physical Context

• Changing locations, such as taking an exam in a different setting, can affect memory retrieval.

• Minor changes (e.g., different rooms on the same campus) may not significantly impact recall as locations may feel psychologically similar.

• Major context changes (e.g., taking an exam at a completely different campus) may create anxiety but the impact is subjective.

• Extreme Example: Taking an exam at the beach could severely hinder performance due to environmental distractions.

Psychological Context

• The mood and mental attitude during encoding and recall influence memory.

• Positive emotions during studying and testing lead to better performance, supporting the encoding specificity principle.

• Confidence while studying can enhance memory retention.

Physiological Context

• Regular habits (e.g., coffee consumption) can impact cognitive performance.

• Changing physiological states (e.g., not consuming coffee on exam day) might interfere with memory performance.

Research on Bilingual Memory

• Studies showed that bilinguals recall better when the retrieval language matches the encoding language.

• Findings: Responses in the same language as encoding yield higher accuracy compared to responses in a different language.

• This supports the encoding specificity principle across different languages.

Role of Emotions in Memory Encoding

• Pleasant experiences are remembered better than negative ones, a phenomenon known as the Pollyanna Principle.

• Example: Everyday annoyances (like being cut off in traffic) are quickly forgotten compared to positive experiences (like receiving a free coffee).

• However, traumatic memories can be strong and persist despite the Pollyanna principle.

Positivity Effect

• Over time, negative experiences may feel less negative, demonstrating the positivity effect, where emotional weight fades.

Mood Congruence Theory

• Current emotional state affects memory recall; negative moods evoke memories of negative events and vice versa for positive moods.

• This can influence test performance depending on how one feels prior to the exam.

Memory Retrieval

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts and experiences; awareness of retrieval tasks.

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious influence of prior experience without direct retrieval awareness.

• Example: Being influenced by subliminal information learned but not consciously recalled.

Key Findings on Implicit Memory

• Implicit memory can be demonstrated through word completion tasks and other indirect assessments.

Types of Amnesia

Retrograde Amnesia

• Loss of memories from before a traumatic event.

• Individuals can live normally with no access to previous memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

• Inability to form new memories after a traumatic event.

• Example: Famous case study of a patient who could not create new declarative memories but could improve procedural skills.

Expertise and Memory

• Expertise primarily results from extensive practice rather than innate intelligence.

• Experts possess a better-organized knowledge structure, facilitating superior memory performance in their area of expertise.

• Experts have different strategies for rehearsal, visualization, and organization of knowledge, which enhances memory retention.

The Constructive Nature of Memories

• Memory recall is a reconstructive process, not merely replaying a video.

• Each retrieval can fill in gaps with approximations leading to potential inaccuracies.

• Future classes will explore the nature of memory and the possibility of misremembering.