Unit 6 - Consequences of Industrialization (1750-1900)

• Explain the relative significance of the effects of imperialism from 1750 to 1900

  • The development of industrial capitalism led to increased standards of living for some, and to continued improvement in manufacturing methods that increased the availability, affordability, and variety of consumer goods.

  • As states industrialized,they also expanded existing overseas empires and established new colonies and transoceanic relationships.

  • The 18th century marked the beginning of an intense period of revolution and rebellion against existing governments, leading to the establishment of new nation-states around the world.

  • As a result of the emergence of transoceanic empires and a global capitalist economy, migration patterns changed dramatically, and the numbers of migrants increased significantly.

Rationales for Imperialism

1. Motives 

   1. Industrial Revolution - raw materials, markets and investment (mines, railroads, etc.) and bases for coal and supplies

   2. Nationalism - more territory = more prestige and power (imperialism was proof of a nation’s superiority) NATION SHOULD RUN STATE

• We versus Them

• Common culture

• Easily drawn boundaries

• Social classes are united

1. German Nationalism

1. The German Confederation

   1. 39 states populated by German-speaking people

   2. Divided religiously, united culturally

   3. Dominated by Austrian Empire

2. Early attempts at unification

   1. 1834 → Zollverein (economic alliance)

      1. Set standard monetary system and reduced taxes

   2. 1848 → Frankfurt Assembly

   3. German states offer rule of united Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia

   4. Frederick refused, thought it was a crown “from the gutter” (disrespect)

3. Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

   1. Prussian chancellor → believed in “realpolitik,” which was realistic politics utilized for the benefit of the state

   2. “Blood and Iron” → justified the use of war to unite Germany

4. Wars of unification

   1. 1864 - Prussia and Austria take German-speaking provinces from Denmark

   2. 1866 - Seven Weeks War: Prussia defeated Austria → Prussia now unquestioned leader of German states

   3. 1870-71 - Franco Prussian War: Prussia defeated France (Gained Alsace and Loraine) 

   4. Unites with remaining German states (except for Austria)

   5. The Second Reich - Germany becomes the strongest industrial and military power in Europe

2. Italian Unification

1. Young Italy

   1. Secret society founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1830s

   2. Mazzini wished to create an Italian republic

   3. Mazzini and other leaders forced into exile after failed 1848 revolution

2. Camillo Cavour (1810-1861)

   1. 1852 - Named prime minister of Sardinia

   2. Sought to unite all of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II

   3. Utilized “realpolitik”

   4. Allied with more powerful nations to promote Italian unification

3. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

   1. Military commander of “red shirts”

   2. Garibaldi and 1,000 men invaded Sicily and Naples in 1860

   3. Offered lands to Victor Emmanuel  in name of “risorgimento” (unification of italy)

4. Italy United (1860-1870)

   1. 1860 - Northern provinces vote to unite with Sardinia

   2. 1861 - New Italian parliament names Victor Emmanuel king of all Italy

   3. 1866 - Austria gives Venetia to Italy

   4. 1870 - Rome votes to unite with Italy

3. Religion - Many Europeans believed they needed to spread Christianity around the world (could be argued that this was not a legitimate motive; Christianity was used as an excuse to conquer people for monetary incentive) 

4. Racial “Superiority” - Europe was obligated to give colonies the gift of culture (“White Man’s Burden” , “Social Darwinism” , “la mission civilisatrice”) 

2. Keys to Success 

   1. Inventions like railroads and steamships allowed European armies to travel faster (especially in Africa) 

   2. European weapons (like Maxim machine guns) were superior to the primitive weapons found in Asia and Africa

   3. Medical advances (i.e. quinine as cure for malaria) - Europeans were scared of disease in Africa

   4. Collapse of the Ottoman, Indian, and Chinese empires coincided with the rise of imperialism. 

State Expansion

• States expanded in 4 ways, State Takeovers, Diplomatically, With Settler Colonies, and by Conquering

• State Takeover

  • Moved from private to state control of certain colonies

  • Congo

1. Settler v. Exploitation Colonialism 

   1. Settler Colonialism - where the colonized power seeks to replace the existing population 

      1. Ex. Australia, South Africa 

   2. Exploitation Colonialism - where the colonizing power seeks to extract resources or force native population to work

      1. Ex. Haiti, India, most of Africa

2. Belgian Congo 

   1. Leopold II claimed Congo Free State as his personal colony (not the state’s) 

      1. He called it a “civilizing mission” 

      2. He wanted copper, ivory, rubber 

   2. Congo Free State becomes a nightmare

      1. Forced labor, beatings, mutilations 

      2. Resources exploited

      3. Population declined by at least 70% (at least 4 million killed) 

   3. 1908 - Belgian Congo becomes official colony of Belgium (NOT Leopold’s) 

      1. Ended the worst abuses 

      2. Exploitation of resources continued 

• India

1. Corporate Imperialism (1650-1857) - economy takeover (not military) 

   1. The British East India Company 

      1. Negotiates with local leaders for ports 

      2. Seven Years War (1758-65) British eliminated France as economic rival for India 

   2. Economic power expands

      1. When Indian rulers resist, EIC creates an armed force of Indians (had its benefits for both British gov. and India - masses of soldiers and cheap/good pay) 

      2. EIC gains control of trade 

2. British Policies

   1. Growing importance of opium trade 

   2. Gradual destruction of the Indian economy (forced switch to opium manufacturing) 

      1. 1700s - prohibited the export of manufactured goods (not from England) to England 

      2. 1800s - Indians could only buy British goods (mercantilism) 

      3. Transferred land to big landlords for cash crops (opium). Disallowed growth of anything other than opium (cash crop is the opposite of subsistence crops) 

      4. Transformed India from a semi-industrial economy to an agricultural one

   3. Sepoy Mutiny (1857) (Sepoys = Indian soldiers in British army) 

      1. The first violent response to imperialism 

      2. Many angry groups in India (from peasants to princes) 

      3. At least 100,000 Indians killed (Indians ultimately fail to defeat the British) 

      4. No national unity

      5. The British used religious division to defeat the rebels (ex. Sikhs vs. Hindus and Muslims) - religious hatred between Indians 

3. India Joins British Empire

   1. British bring political and economic unity to India

   2. Elites are educated to assist the English government 

   3. Played religions against each other (Hindus v. Muslims) 

   4. Played the castes against each other 

   5. Unjust policies gradually led to Indian nationalism

• Diplomacy

  • Act of making political agreements by means of dialogue and negotiation, not warfare

  • State competition fueled imperialism

  • Algeria

    • Algeria wanted to get paid from France, and France sent diplomat to ask for more time from payment

    • After diplomat was declined, invaded Algeria and took over Algeria

  • Africa

1. Scramble For Africa

• 1884-1885: Berlin Conference: 

  • Major European Powers (Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands) agree to divide up Africa 

  • Principal of Physical Position (troops, colonial office - stronger nations gained larger territories - drew up a map and nations had to be physically present in their African territory) 

  • Within 20 years, nearly all of Africa was colonized, possible with new technology

2. The Costs: 

• Colonial boundaries ignore ethnic rivalries (tribe) 

• Boundaries lead to problems for modern Africa

• Conflicts among imperialists lead to World War I

• Japan

1. Japan and the U.S. 

   1. 1853 - Commodore Matthew Perry visits Japan from the U.S. 

      1. U.S. wanted the Tokugawa shogunate to end 200 years of isolation 

      2. Arguments for opening Japan: 

         1. The U.S. had modern technology/innovation

         2. The U.S. might use force if Japan did not agree to trade

         3. Japan needed to change

      3. Arguments for Isolation (AGAINST opening Japan):

         1. Americans were “barbarians” (uncivilized people)

         2. Japan was better off isolated and protected 

         3. Japan did not want to deal with a nation that used threats 

   2. 1854 - The U.S. and Japan sign the Treaty of Kanagawa

      1. Opened two Japanese ports to American ships 

      2. Opened diplomatic relations 

   3. Results: 

      1. Other Western nations made unequal treaties with Japan to extend trade 

      2. Japan sent representatives to the U.S. (under Emperor Mutsuhito Meiji) 

      3. Imported Western ideas and technology 

• Egypt

1. The Suez Canal 

   1. The story of a good investment gone bad 

      1. French-Egyptian partnership (1854-1869) 

      2. France wanted to control access to “The East” (other countries would have to pay France to go to the East) 

      3. Egypt borrows money from the French to build the canal, but then cannot pay back the French (France runs out of money to finish the canal) 

   2. The British Step In (1881) 

      1. British agree to finance the project (British gets profits, France does not)

      2. Send troops to Egypt to provide the Egyptian ruler with economic “advice” (advice = start growing cotton) 

2. British “Protectorate” 

   1. Creation of a plantation cash crop: cotton 

   2. Peasants driven off land 

   3. British control Egypt with just 5,000 troops (“convince” Egyptians to start growing cotton) 

• Settler Colonies

  • Colony in which imperial power claims an already inhabited territory and sends its own people to set up an outpost of their own society

    • British established settler colonies in Australia and New Zealand establishing a neo-european society and introduced disease

    • South Africa

1. Direct v. Indirect Rule 

   1. Direct Rule (French System) 

      1. French officials were used to run the colonies 

      2. Peaceful & Efficient? 

   2. Indirect Rule (British System) 

      1. British used local officials to run the colonies 

      2. Less expensive and more civilized? 

   3. Reality was that both led to revolution/rebellion (African people did not like Europeans being present in their country in general) 

2. South Africa

   1. The Dutch

      1. 1652 - Dutch arrive first in South Africa - establishes Cape Colony 

      2. Began as a base on route to Southeast Asia 

      3. Descendants of the Dutch settlers were called Boers

   2. The British

      1. 1815 - takes over Cape Colony (before Berlin Conference)

      2. 1836-38 - “Great Trek” 

         1. Boers run away and migrate North 

         2. Partly because British abolished slavery in its empire (Boers were slave-owners)

      3. British win Boer War (1899-1902) - only war between European nations for territory in Africa 

3. Imperialism in South Africa 

   1. British capital pours in (diamond and gold mined in South Africa) 

   2. Unites entire South African colony (Union of South Africa) 

   3. Huge need for African labor for mines 

   4. Native Lands Act (1913) - restricted black ownerships of land to 7% of all land 

   5. Urban Areas Act (1923) - black people prohibited from officially settling in cities - men must carry a “pass” issued by an employer 

• Conquering Neighboring Territory

  • United States

1. Roots of American Imperialism 

   1. Importance of Sea Power (written by Alfred T. Mahan) 

      1. America needs a large navy 

      2. American commerce needs protection 

      3. America needs naval bases for refueling (in Pacific) 

   2. Mechanization = need for new markets 

   3. To keep islands out of European (or Japanese) hands

   4. Social Darwinism - to spread “civilization” 

   5. Manifest destiny, god given right to expand

      1. Displaced more and more natives to reservations

2. Causes of the Spanish-American War

   1. Cuba (American sympathy from Yellow Journalism) 

      1. 1895 - Cuba begins its second war of independence 

      2. 1896 - Spain attempts to restore order 

         1. Sent 300,000 Cubans to concentration camps 

         2. Thousands died of hunger and disease 

   2. The USS Maine

      1. Feb. 15, 1898 - explosion sinks ship, killing 260 

      2. Cause is unknown - yet  journalists blame Spain 

      3. April. 20, 1898 - Congress declares war on Spain 

3. Results of Spanish-American War

   1. Treaty of Paris of 1898: 

      1. Cuba becomes independent 

      2. U.S. gets Puerto Rico and Guam 

      3. U.S. pays Spain $20 million for the Philippines 

   2. Cuban Independence 

      1. 1900 - Cuba drafts constitution 

      2. 1901 - Platt Amendment - U.S. demand: 

         1. No treaties with foreign nations (that might weaken Cuban independence) 

         2. No territory given to foreign nations 

         3. U.S. may intervene at any time 

         4. Guantanamo Bay to U.S.-leased in perpetuity (forever) 

   3. Puerto Rico

      1. Becomes a US territory 

      2. 1900 - Foraker Act:

         1. Sets up formal colonial government

         2. Denies citizenship

         3. U.S. appoints most of Puerto Rican government

      3. 1917 - Jones Act: 

         1. Congress grants citizenship 

         2. Formally declared a territory 

• US Expansion

1. Early Expansionism 

   1. Alaska 

      1. Purchased from Russia in 1867 

      2. Costs $7.2 million 

      3. Alaskan gold rush in 1896 

   2. Hawaii 

      1. By 1880s, sugar is 75% of islands’ wealth 

      2. Planters (American sugar plantation owners in Hawaii) want to avoid “sugar duty” (tax/tariff)

      3. If Hawaii were a part of America, sugar would not be taxed as imports (more profit) 

      4. 1887 - Hawaiian king was forced to sign new constitution and allow a naval base at Pearl Harbor 

      5. 1891 - “Queen Lil” (Liliuokalani) makes new constitution (gives Hawaiians right to vote) 

      6. 1893 - Revolution 

         1. Planters depose/overthrow Queen Lil 

         2. Sanford Dole becomes president of Republic of Hawaii 

      7. 1898 - U.S. annexed Hawaii 

2. Philippine-American War (1898-1902) 

   1. Filipino Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence and leads resistance to U.S. rule 

   2. 200,000 American troops sent to end the uprising 

   3. War cost America $400 million and 4,300 soldiers 

   4. Between 20,000 and 60,000 Filipinos killed 

   5. Philippines granted independence in 1946  

3. American Anti-Imperialist League (1899) 

   1. Imperialism was immoral 

   2. Would bring an end to American virtue 

   3. Floods of cheap immigrant labor would drive down wages 

   4. Would “pollute” population with “racially unfit” people

   5. Famous Members: Mark Twain, William J. Bryan, Andrew Carnegie 

• Russia

  • Idea spread of Pan-Slavism: Unite all Slavs under Russian authority, including all who currently lived under Ottoman and Austrian rule

  • Led to many campaigns to claim neighboring countries and territories

• Japan

  • Meiji Restoration (1868 - 1912) 

    • Dissatisfaction with the Shogun’s rule (westernization) 

      • Shogun had allowed foreigners into Japan 

      • Japan’s experience mirrored China (worried they were going to be imperialized) 

    • 1868 - Shogun was forced to step down and the emperor was restored to power 

    • This 15 year old emperor began a period of “meiji” or “enlightened rule” 

    • Emperor Mutsuhito Meiji sent advisors to Europe and U.S. to learn modern, western ways (to close the gap between Japan and the West) 

  • Changes Under the Meiji 

    • Political

      • 1889 - A constitution was written, which created a Diet (law-making body) 

      • New laws were passed which ended torture and set court procedures 

      • The military was strengthened using western technology 

    • Economic

      • The government set up banking, postal, and railroad systems

      • The government built factories and sold them to wealthy businessmen 

      • Wealthy families (zaibatsu) controlled many businesses for generations 

      • Japan developed into major industrial power by 1890s 

    • Social 

      • The constitution abolished class divisions, leading to more equality

      • Women began to work in factories 

      • Compulsory elementary school for all children 

  • Japanese Imperialism 

    • Causes:

      • Lack of raw materials 

      • To avoid “victimization” 

      • To earn respect of the West 

    • 1894-1895 - The Sino-Japanese War - Japan defeats China for Korean territory/land

      • China was forced to give up all claims to Korea 

      • Japan gained Taiwan and part of Manchuria 

      • Japan proved to be an “equal” of the West 

    • 1904-1905: The Russo-Japanese War - Japan defeats Russia 

      • No asian nation had ever defeated a European nation before in modern times 

      • Japan took unquestioned control of Korea and Manchuria 

Indigenous Response

• Causes of Resistance

1. Increasing questions about political authority

   1. Many imperial powers introduced western style education to subjects of their rule

   2. Included enlightenment thoughts, which caused questioning of imperial power

2. Growing sense of nationalism

   1. When imperial powers imposed will and language and culture on their subjects, that had a way of inducing nationalism in conquered 

• Direct Resistance

  • West Africa

    • British wanted more land in West Africa to expand Gold Coast colony

    • Made 4 attempts to try to conquer Asante to get rich deposits of gold

    • 5th attempt (Yaa Asantewaa’s War) saw Asante using armed violence (men led by Yaa Asantewaa) 

      • After severe casualties on both sides, Asante loss due to technological advances in Britain

  • Sudan

    • The Mahdist Revolt: Inspired by Islamic teachings, Muhammad Ahmad (Mahdi-Redeemer of Islam)  formed an army to fight the Europeans who had conquered Sudan. They beheaded the European Governor of the Sudan, General Charles Gordon before they were 

    • Major uprisings and anti-imperialist wars in Africa (1874-1913) 

    • Unsuccessful (?) 

  • Ethiopia

    • Menelik II of Ethiopia feared being conquered by a European nation and so turned the tables by purchasing modern weapons and hiring European experts to train his men to resist with his vast wealth 

    • Battle of Adwa (1896)

    • Successful resistance 

• Creation of New States

  • Cherokee Nation

    • Created at the edge of the United States

    • During expansion of USA, Cherokee and other natives were pushed away due to superiority of US

    • Cherokee responded by assimilating, but US still passed Indian Removal Act, removing the Cherokee along with other indigenous, resettled in Oklahoma

      • Cherokee established a new state, but was eventually removed after U.S. gained control of Oklahoma

  • Liberia

    • America decides to return the descendants of slaves to settle the lands once lived on (during the time Europeans were conquering the rest of Africa) 

    • Successful resistance 

• Religious Rebellions

  • Xhosa

    • Cattle killing movement in Southern Africa

    • British attempt to take over Cape Colony of the Xhosa people, led to Xhosa not having enough land to survive and cattle were dying off

    • Religious movement that if Xhosa killed sick cows, healthy cattle would rise and replace them

    • Would drive European intruders away, killing thousands of cows leading to starvation, and loss of the Xhosa

  • India

    • Through a peaceful boycott, Indian natives refused to buy Western-made goods (ex. Western clothing). 

    • Mohandas Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) 

    • Successful resistance 

Global Economic Development

• Second wave of imperialism had a massive wave on global economy

• Development of Export Economies

  • Main motivations for imperialism were to gain more raw materials

  • As imperial powers gained colonies, colonies were transformed into export economies, focused on the export of raw materials/goods for global markets

    • Before this, people in colonies were subsistence farmers (growing food to survive)

    • After powers began to colonize, began to make regions focus on growing/mining only 1 or 2 crops/materials (cash crops)

  • Imperial powers transformed colonial economies to serve their own interests in extraction of resources and production of crop

• Causes

  • Imperial powers needed raw materials for industrialization and factories

    • Egypt and India was used to mass produce cotton for British textile

    • Palm oil plantations were established throughout Africa to provide to British

    • Guano extraction in Pacific and Atlantic Oceans

  • Need to supply food to growing urban centers and population

    • As cities grew more populated, had to import food to feed population

• Effects

  • Profits from exports were used to purchase finished manufactured goods

    • Britain's empire doubled in size in 1800s, but they focused on integrating the colonies into networks of trade

    • Colonies provided a closed market for goods, industrialized states produced more goods than their population needed, which could be sold to colonies

    • Whatever profits colonies gained from export of resources went to purchasing finished goods exported by imperial states

  • A growing economic dependence of colonial people on their imperial parents

    • Reorganization of colonial economy served the interests of colonial overlords, not the subjects 

    • When imperial states reorganized economy, they were dependent

Economic Imperialism

• The act of one state extending control over another by economic means

• The Opium Wars

  • Failure to industrialize left them vulnerable to other industrialized nations such as Britain and France

  • Trade Imbalance

    • Early 1800s - Britain exported opium from India to balance imports from China 

    • By 1830, millions were addicted (caused major drain on Chinese treasury) 

    • Chinese crackdown on opium trade 

      • Opium dealers were executed 

      • In 1839, the Chinese destroyed an entire opium shipment 

  • The First Opium War (1839-1842) 

    • British win, but only attacked a few cities 

    • Emperor surrendered rather than risk a wider, larger war 

  • Outcomes of the Opium War

    • 1842 - Treaty of Nanjing (unequal treaty) 

      • China had to pay for Britain’s war damages (reparations) 

      • Five ports in  China were opened to British ships 

      • China gave Britain the island of Hong Kong

    • General concessions (what China gave up to Europe) 

      • Free trade in China 

      • All of China was divided into spheres of influence

      • Right to extraterritoriality - any Europeans arrested in China went on trial in a European court) 

    • Reasons for China’s weakness 

      • China did not feel the need to industrialize or modernize (prior success) 

      • Confucianism scorns merchants and industrialists 

      • Lacked Britain’s resource advantage 

• In mid 1800s, Chinese began to weaken, causing a distraction from industrialization

1. Taiping (“Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace”) Rebellion (1850-1864) 

   1. ”Christian” movement led by Hong Xiuquan 

   2. Proposed Changes:

                     1.  Land reform (divided land evenly among the peasants)

                     2.  Sexual equality

                     3.  End to Qing Dynasty

3. Rebels took control of large parts of China (almost toppled Qing)

4.  Wealthy Chinese opposed land reform

                     1. By 1864, rebellion had ended

                     2. 20-30 million deaths

2.  Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s-1870s)

   1.  Adopt Western technology

   2.  Maintain Confucian traditions, institutions

   3.  “East for essence, West for practical use.”

3. Hundred Days of Reform (1898) 

1. Supported by young Emperor Guang Xu

2.  Proposed Changes

                     1. Modernization of schools, army, civil service

                     2. Westernization of economies (ex. factories)

3. Conservatives overthrows emperor (imprisoned for life) 

4. Boxer Rebellion (1900)

1.  ”Righteous Harmonious Fists”

2.  Anti-foreign, anti-Christian movement

                     1. Attacked missionaries

                     2.  Killed thousands of Chinese Christians

3.  Ended by foreign forces (20,000 from Europe and U.S.)

4.  Led to increased Westernization (educational and economic reforms)

5. Nationalist Revolution (1911)

1. Led by Sun Yatsen (Sun Yixian)

2. Promoted “Three Principles of People” (nationalism, democracy, livelihood)

3. Qing Dynasty overthrown

4. Sun Yatsen becomes first president of Chinese Republic

• The Second Opium War

  • French joined British, defeating the chinese

  • Led to more unfair trade treaties between Western powers

  • Carved China into many different parts, spheres of influence (economic control)

• Port of Buenos Aires

  • Throughout 1800s, heavy investment to improve Argentina infrastructure to set up extraction of raw materials

  • Since port was funded by Britain, port was located close to factories, which led to increase in exports to Britain and dependence on British investment 

• Trade in Commodities

  • Commodity: Any good that can be bought and sold on the market  

  • Reorganized colonial economies to focus on trade and commodities

1. Cotton

   1. Grown in India and Egypt to be exported to Britain

   2. Dependent on external demand

2. Palm Oil

   1. Grown in Sub-Saharan Egypt

• Gave economic advantage to industrial powers while compromising power of colonies

Causes of Migration

• Economic Causes

1. Significant Demographic Change

   1. Population grew exponentially, due to new medicines and increased variation in diets

   2. Was especially true in rural areas, and migrated to urban areas to find jobs

2. Famine

   1. Some places that still farmed primitively faced famine

      1. Irish Potato Famine 

         1. Potato was a large part of Irish diet due to Atlantic trade

         2. When famine struck, millions of people died of starvation 

         3. Many fled to urban centers in United States

• Technological Causes

  • New modes of cheap transportation like the railroad and steamship facilitated wave of migrations for those who migrated within and internationally

  • Majority settled in urban centers in both imperial states and colonial areas where jobs were abundant

  • Led to rapid growth in urbanization

  • Many migrants left homes and never returned, but some took advantage of cheap transportation and returned

• Economic Causes

1. Migration for work

   1. Voluntary Migration

      1. Relocated freely based on their own accord

      2. Wanted to find jobs in different areas for new opportunities

      3. Millions of Irish, German, Italians left their home societies and relocated to urban centers of the east coast of America

      4. Millions of Chinese immigrants relocated on western, found work in railroad industry

   2. Coerced & Semi-Coerced Labor

      1. The Atlantic Slave trade was still in fruition at the beginning of this period

      2. Convict labor, criminals from countries were sent to colonies to do hard labor 

      3. Indentured servitude - Laborer would sign a contract (indenture) that bound them to a work for a certain amount of time

         1. Slavery would be abolished, but many industries still needed cheap labor

         2. Indentured servitude filled gap, with British facilitating migration of indentured Indians to different parts of the empire near India

         3. British operated tin mines in Malaysia where they made use of Chinese indentured servants who were suffering poverty at home

Effects of Migration

• Effect #1 : Gender Imbalance

1. Far more women in home society as men began to migrate to urban centers to find newer jobs

   1. Women began to take on traditionally male roles, such as tending livestock and other physical work

2. Family structure began to shift

   1. In South Africa, 60% of households were led by women

   2. Some were able to sell excess food like cassava, allowing financial independence

• Effect #2 : Cultural Enclaves / Territories 

  • Geographic area with high concentration of people of same ethnicity and culture within a foreign culture

  • Due to mass migration, every major urban area began to have diverse immigrant populations that lived together in enclaves

1. Outpost

   1. Provided a small outpost of the migrants’ culture in the receiving society where they spoke their native language, practiced religion, and ate cultural food

   2. Acted as places of familiarity in newer areas

2. Cultural Diffusion

   1. Presence of these communities also contributed to cultural diffusion of their home cultures into their receiving societies

      1. Growing number Irish in US encouraged growth of Catholicism 

      2. Growth of Chinese migrants clustered in SE Asia and became significant people in colonial economy

• Effect #3 : Nativism

  • A policy of protecting interests of native born people over against the interests of immigrants

  • Even though migrants took low paying jobs that people of the receiving country did not want and played an important role, they faced nativist resistance

    • Rooted in ethnic and prejudice, or a fear of cultural difference

    • Ex. Irish were marginalized and discriminated against in the United States

    • Some gov’ts passed acts to limit immigrants in the country

  • Gov’t Policies

1. The Chinese Exclusion Act

   1. Native born Americans began to resent growing number of Chinese in the US

   2. Led to multiple riots in the 1870s, where Chinese were brutalized

   3. Banned almost all Chinese immigration to the US

2. White Australia Policy

   1. Passed by the British Government

   2. Australia received large amount of Chinese, faced similar response as US

   3. Completely cut off flow of Chinese into Australia