Ch 6 psyc

Chapter 6 Learning

Overview

• Focus topics:

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Important Factors in Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

  • Important Factors in Operant Conditioning

  • Observational Learning

  • The Biological Basis for Learning

Learning

• Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism resulting from environmental experience, often exhibited in overt behavior.

• Key Concepts:

  • Permanent change

  • Experience and its role in learning

  • Overt behavior (observable actions)

• Internal processes are not observable, thus researchers study observable results of learning.

• Early research primarily involved non-human animal participants to enhance experimental control.

Classical Conditioning Terminology

• Conditioning: Systematic procedure for learning associations and responses to specific stimuli.

• Stimulus: Detectable sensation impacting an organism.

• Response: The reaction of an organism to a stimulus.

• Reflex: Automatic behavior in response to a stimulus.

• Ivan Pavlov: Developed classical conditioning, demonstrating how a neutral stimulus can elicit responses through association.

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Findings

• Experiment: Conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): naturally elicits unconditioned response (food).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): natural reaction to US (salivation).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that, after association, elicits a response (bell).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): response elicited by CS (salivation to bell).

Important Classical Conditioning Studies

• Marquis (1931): Showed classical conditioning in human infants using the sucking reflex.

• Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner, 1920): Associated loud noises (US) with a white rat (CS), leading to a conditioned fear response (CR).

• Higher-Order Conditioning: Another neutral stimulus can become a CS through association with an existing CS.

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning

• Strength: Conditioning is stronger with a strong US.

• Timing: CS should precede the US closely for effective conditioning.

• Frequency: More frequent pairings enhance association strength.

• Predictability: Reliable prediction of US by CS leads to quicker conditioning.

Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Extinction: Reducing CR by presenting CS alone without US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Temporary return of an extinguished CR after a rest period.

• Stimulus Generalization: CR may occur to similar stimuli.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the original CS.

Daily Applications of Classical Conditioning

• The Garcia Effect: Conditioned taste aversion can occur after one pairing. Example: Associating a food (CS) with nausea (US) makes an animal avoid that food.

• Conditioning of the Immune System: Allergic reactions and asthma can be conditioned through similar mechanisms.

Pavlov's Reinterpretation

• Current research explores how imagined stimuli can evoke responses and how thoughts and images could lead to conditioned responses, including maladaptive behaviors.

Operant Conditioning Overview

• Focus on voluntary behaviors influenced by consequences.

• Operant Conditioning Definition: Behavior probability affected by reinforcement or punishment post-behavior.

  • Reinforcer: Event increasing behavior reoccurrence probability.

Two Types of Reinforcement

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding pleasant stimuli to increase behavior recurrence (e.g., praise).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing unpleasant stimuli to increase behavior recurrence (e.g., releasing an aversive stimulus).

Nature of Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcer: Has survival value (e.g., food).

• Secondary Reinforcer: Neutral stimulus gaining value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money).

• Reinforcers can be situationally effective.

Skinner Box and Shaping

• Skinner Box: Device demonstrating operant conditioning through desired responses.

• Shaping: Gradual reinforcement of progressively closer approximations to the desired behavior.

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Presenting negative stimuli or removing positive stimuli to decrease behavior recurrence.

• Positive Punishment: Adding unpleasant stimuli (e.g., a reprimand).

• Negative Punishment: Removing pleasant stimuli (e.g., losing privileges).

Nature of Punishers

• Primary Punisher: Naturally unpleasant stimuli (e.g., shock).

• Secondary Punisher: Stimuli acquiring punishing qualities through association (e.g., scolding).

• Limitations of Punishment: May suppress behaviors without eliminating them, possibly damaging relationships or increasing aggression.

Important Factors in Operant Conditioning

• Strength: Reinforcers should be strong; moderate punishment is effective.

• Timing: Short intervals between behavior and consequence enhance learning.

• Frequency: Early training often requires continuous reinforcement, shifting to partial in later stages.

Examples and Schedules of Reinforcement

• Interval Schedules: Based on time intervals.

  • Fixed: Reward follows the first response after a set time.

  • Variable: Reward follows the first response after varying time.

Factor Influences in Schedules

• Ratio Schedules: Based on response rate/output.

  • Fixed Ratio: Reward follows set number of responses (e.g., getting paid after every 10 items).

  • Variable Ratio: Reward follows varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

Resilience in Operant Conditioning

• Stimulus Discrimination: Reinforcement tied to specific responses to similar stimuli.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Previously extinguished behavior may return after a rest.

Observational Learning

• Observational Learning Theory: Behavior can be learned without direct reinforcement/punishment.

  • Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Emphasizes observation and modeling behavior of others.

• Attention and Motivation: Crucial for successful observational learning.

Bobo Doll Experiment

• Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate that behavior.

• Some developed new forms of aggression influenced by observations.

Cognitive Learning Types

• Insight Learning: Sudden understanding of a problem (“Aha!” moment).

• Latent Learning: Learning without reinforcement demonstrated only when motivated.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations aiding navigation based on learned experiences.

Biological Basis of Learning

• Brain stimulation linked to reinforcement effects observed through dopamine pathways.

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Confirmatory evidence of synaptic changes during memory consolidation.

• Neural Adaptations: Include protein synthesis and growth of dendritic spines pertinent to learning and memory.

Learning and Brain Changes

• Hebb’s Theory: Structural changes occur in the brain due to repeated learning situations, increasing memory retention.

• Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt with learning experiences, particularly prominent in the hippocampus.