PYSC Chapter 1 Lecture

<h3 id="147d2fde-ad07-4254-8fde-344f99c01cf3" data-toc-id="147d2fde-ad07-4254-8fde-344f99c01cf3" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Chapter 1 - Psychology & Scientific Thinking</h3><h4 id="364e43cb-c1eb-4521-a520-42f703f50354" data-toc-id="364e43cb-c1eb-4521-a520-42f703f50354" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">What is Psychology?</h4><ul><li><p>Definition: The scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior.</p></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="58adda94-9dc4-4f8d-8110-0f44133792dc" data-toc-id="58adda94-9dc4-4f8d-8110-0f44133792dc" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Levels of Analysis</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Social Culture Influences</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>Relates to personal relationships and interactions with others.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Psychological Level</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>Involves thoughts, feelings, and emotions.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Biological Level</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>Concerns molecular and neurochemical aspects including molecules and brain structures.</p></li></ul></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="11425c6a-f864-4b58-b8c4-7dba66b6d5af" data-toc-id="11425c6a-f864-4b58-b8c4-7dba66b6d5af" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Common Sense Is Often Not Enough</h4><ul><li><p>Some common sayings that reflect misconceptions about relationships and behavior:</p><ul><li><p>Birds of a feather flock together</p></li><li><p>Opposites attract</p></li><li><p>Absence makes the heart grow fonder</p></li><li><p>Out of sight, out of mind</p></li><li><p>Better safe than sorry</p></li><li><p>Nothing ventured, nothing gained</p></li><li><p>Two heads are better than one</p></li><li><p>Too many cooks spoil the broth</p></li><li><p>Actions speak louder than words</p></li><li><p>The pen is mightier than the sword</p></li></ul></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="0fbe5ac7-2548-4d98-aae0-1a2aef96246c" data-toc-id="0fbe5ac7-2548-4d98-aae0-1a2aef96246c" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Challenges in Studying Psychology</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Naïve Realism</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>The belief that we see the world as it truly is, can lead to misinterpretation of experiences and behaviors.</p></li></ul></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="356f4726-c768-4fe3-a0cb-7e935f09b2c6" data-toc-id="356f4726-c768-4fe3-a0cb-7e935f09b2c6" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Psychology as a Science</h4><ul><li><p>Importance of gathering and evaluating <strong>empirical evidence</strong> (gained through experience and observation) to minimize biases.</p></li><li><p><strong>Scientific Approach</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>Systematic methods used to validate findings and counteract personal biases.</p></li></ul></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="70789f7b-21da-4034-926d-6e17e64f3125" data-toc-id="70789f7b-21da-4034-926d-6e17e64f3125" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Theories and Hypotheses</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Theory</strong>: Explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world.</p></li><li><p><strong>Hypothesis</strong>: A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.</p></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="39b200cf-a4b2-401b-a1d5-6eccc32ba678" data-toc-id="39b200cf-a4b2-401b-a1d5-6eccc32ba678" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Bias in Science</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Confirmation Bias</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Belief Perseverance</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>The tendency to maintain beliefs even when faced with contrary evidence.</p></li></ul></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="56dc0b30-72bf-4e4a-ad51-71e4424badc1" data-toc-id="56dc0b30-72bf-4e4a-ad51-71e4424badc1" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Pseudoscience in Psychology</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Definition</strong>: Claims that appear scientific but lack empirical support or cannot be tested.</p></li><li><p>Examples of pseudoscience practitioners include numerologists, fortune tellers, and astrologers.</p></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="d1bd9f7e-6e9b-40d6-877b-222ae7f8954a" data-toc-id="d1bd9f7e-6e9b-40d6-877b-222ae7f8954a" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">W<u>arning Signs of Pseudoscience</u></h4><ol><li><p>Exaggerated Claims</p></li><li><p>Overreliance on Anecdotes</p></li><li><p>Lack of Connection to Other Research</p></li><li><p>Absence of Peer Review</p></li><li><p>No Self-Correction</p></li><li><p>Use of Psychobabble</p></li><li><p>Claims of “Proof” instead of Evidence</p></li></ol><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="03b8a534-14e4-4e12-a7d7-114115ecb48c" data-toc-id="03b8a534-14e4-4e12-a7d7-114115ecb48c" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Avoiding Pseudoscience: Logical Fallacies</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Emotional Reasoning Fallacy</strong>: Using emotions to evaluate claims.</p></li><li><p><strong>Bandwagon Fallacy</strong>: Believing a claim is true because many people believe it.</p></li><li><p><strong>Not Me Fallacy</strong>: Assuming one is immune from biases affecting others.</p></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="48e9c9de-7f17-4c1d-869f-af410b584a2c" data-toc-id="48e9c9de-7f17-4c1d-869f-af410b584a2c" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true"><u>Principles of Scientific Thinking</u></h4><ol><li><p><strong>Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses</strong> Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses: This principle emphasizes the importance of considering alternative explanations for a phenomenon when evaluating scientific evidence. It requires researchers to ensure that the evidence they rely on is not just supporting their initial hypothesis but also critically examining other possible explanations that could account for the same observation. This step is crucial in scientific thinking to avoid biases and ensure a thorough understanding of the data.</p></li><li><p><strong>Correlation vs. Causation</strong> Correlation vs. Causation: This principle emphasizes the difference between mere associations among variables (correlation) and direct cause-and-effect relationships (causation). Correlation indicates that two variables change together, but it does not mean that one causes the other. Understanding this difference is crucial in scientific analysis to avoid incorrect assumptions about the nature of relationships between variables.</p></li><li><p>Falsifiability</p></li><li><p>Replicability</p></li><li><p>Extraordinary Claims</p></li><li><p>Occam’s Razor Occam's Razor: A principle in scientific thinking that suggests when presented with competing hypotheses, the one that makes the least assumptions should be selected. It promotes simplicity in explaining phenomena, indicating that the simplest solution is often the correct one.</p></li></ol><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="2175e1fd-f9e6-4031-a43c-2e10bcbb2978" data-toc-id="2175e1fd-f9e6-4031-a43c-2e10bcbb2978" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Historical Background in Psychology</h4><ul><li><p><strong>Wilhelm Wundt</strong>: Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, pioneering introspection for studying mental processes. Introspection: A method used by Wilhelm Wundt in his psychology laboratory that involves examining one's own conscious thoughts and feelings as a way of studying mental processes.</p></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="206d400f-957e-46cf-a5e5-076afa8dd0e8" data-toc-id="206d400f-957e-46cf-a5e5-076afa8dd0e8" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Theoretical Frameworks in Psychology</h4><ol><li><p><strong>Structuralism</strong>: Led by E.B. Titchener, aimed to identify basic elements of experience using introspection.</p></li><li><p><strong>Functionalism</strong>: Led by William James, focused on the adaptive purposes of mental processes.</p></li><li><p><strong>Behaviorism</strong>: Led by B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson, focused on observable behaviors and learning principles.</p></li><li><p><strong>Cognitivism</strong>: Led by Jean Piaget and Ulric Neisser, examined the impact of mental processes on behavior.</p></li><li><p><strong>Psychoanalysis</strong>: Focused on unconscious influences on behavior and unresolved conflicts.</p></li></ol><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="714fc4db-6785-4c27-be80-5bbb6559d062" data-toc-id="714fc4db-6785-4c27-be80-5bbb6559d062" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Modern Psychology</h4><ul><li><p>A vast field with over 1 million psychologists globally, including those in academia and various applied settings such as private practice and medicine.</p></li></ul><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><h4 id="8569d916-f8f6-4de9-ad96-ac8a87c0d76f" data-toc-id="8569d916-f8f6-4de9-ad96-ac8a87c0d76f" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Great Debates in Psychology</h4><ol><li><p><strong>Nature vs. Nurture</strong>: Determining whether behavior is influenced more by genetics or environment.</p></li><li><p><strong>Free Will vs. Determinism</strong>: Understanding if behavior is a result of conscious choice or pre-determined factors.</p></li></ol><div data-type="horizontalRule"><hr></div><p>## Types of Psychologists

Clinical Psychologist: Clinical psychologists assess and treat mental illness, emotional disturbances, and dysfunctional behavior. They work in various settings like hospitals, private practices, and mental health clinics, utilizing therapies like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).
Counseling Psychologist: These psychologists help individuals manage everyday life issues, such as relationship difficulties and stress. They often work in schools, colleges, and private practice, focusing on personal and social functioning.
School Psychologist: School psychologists work within educational institutions to help students overcome learning and emotional difficulties. They provide assessments, counseling, and interventions in collaboration with teachers and parents to facilitate student success.
Developmental Psychologist: Developmental psychologists study the psychological growth of individuals throughout their lifespan. They research areas such as cognitive, emotional, and social development, often focusing on children and adolescents, but also examining adults and the elderly.
Experimental Psychologist: These psychologists conduct research to understand psychological phenomena. They apply experimental methods to study areas like perception, memory, and learning, often working in academic and laboratory settings.
Biological Psychologist: Biological psychologists, also known as biopsychologists, study the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behavior. They explore how biology influences thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, often conducting research in neuroscience.
Forensic Psychologist: Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. They work with law enforcement and legal systems, providing assessments of individuals involved in legal cases, including competency evaluations and expert testimony in court.
Industrial-Organizational Psychologist: These psychologists apply psychological principles to workplace environments. They work to improve employee productivity, assess organizational behavior, and develop human resources practices, typically in corporate settings.</p><p></p><h4 id="6675d5c0-de46-4423-b5f2-b07e65ad5695" data-toc-id="6675d5c0-de46-4423-b5f2-b07e65ad5695" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Recap of Learning Objectives</h4><p></p><p></p><ol><li><p>Understanding psychology beyond common sense.</p></li><li><p>The role of science in minimizing bias.</p></li><li><p>Distinguishing between psychological pseudoscience and valid scientific psychology.</p></li><li><p>Reasons for attraction to pseudoscience.</p></li><li><p>Features of scientific skepticism.</p></li><li><p>Key principles of scientific thinking.</p></li><li><p>Major theoretical frameworks in psychology.</p></li><li><p>Types of psychologists and their roles.</p></li><li><p>Major debates shaping psychology.</p></li><li><p>Impact of psychological research on daily life.</p></li></ol><p></p><p> </p>