EDUC 313 Chapter 3 & 4

Chapter 3: Physical and Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers

Overview

• Author: Janet Belsky

• Edition: Sixth Edition

• Focus: The chapter covers physical and cognitive development stages in infancy and toddlerhood.

In This Chapter

• Sections:

  • Setting the Context

  • Basic Newborn States

  • Sensory and Motor Development

  • Cognition

Setting the Context: The Expanding Brain

• Cerebral Cortex

  • Outermost layer of the brain responsible for conscious perception, action, and thought.

  • Influences behavior starting a few months after birth.

  • Brain Growth: Volume quadruples in the first four years.

Brain Development Details

• Neurons:

  • Formed during the fetal period.

  • Axons: Carry information away from neurons.

  • Dendrites: Bring information into neurons.

• Post-Birth Development:

  • Synaptogenesis: Proliferation of synaptic connections occurs.

  • Pruning: Begins around age 3; unused synapses are removed.

  • Myelination: Formation of a fatty sheath around axons, enhancing communication.

  • Visual Cortex: Myelinated by age 1; frontal lobes by age 20.

Brain Plasticity

• Definition: Refers to the malleability of the cortex, especially in infancy and early childhood.

• Importance: Allows other brain regions to compensate for injuries.

• Decreased Plasticity: Less plastic following childhood, making recovery more difficult.

Key Terms to Learn

• Cerebral Cortex

• Axon

• Dendrite

• Synapse

• Synaptogenesis

• Pruning

• Myelination

• Plasticity

Cognition: Piaget's Contributions

• Study Background: Piaget studied his own children.

• Stage Approach:

  • Stages of Development: Focus on infancy includes:

    • Sensorimotor

    • Preoperations

    • Concrete Operations

    • Formal Operations

  • Basic Principles:

    • Schemas

    • Adaptation

    • Assimilation

    • Accommodation

Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage

• Timeframe: Birth to 2 years.

• Key Features:

  • Mastery of physical reality; emergence of symbolic thinking.

  • Circular Reactions: Repetitive actions.

    • Primary Circular Reactions: Body-centered (1-4 months).

    • Secondary Circular Reactions: Focus on the outside world (4 months).

    • Tertiary Circular Reactions: Exploration as a “little scientist” (around 1 year).

• Development of Language: Concludes the sensorimotor stage (18-24 months).

Overview of Cognitive Stages

Understanding Schemas

• Definition: A schema is a cohesive, repeatable action sequence with interconnected components.

• Importance: Forms a mental representation of the world based on past experiences.

Assimilation vs. Accommodation

• Assimilation: Using an existing schema to understand new experiences.

• Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas when they don't apply to new situations.

Infant Social Cognition

• Definition: Skills related to understanding feelings and negotiating social interactions.

• Development:

  • Begins around 5 months.

  • Joint Attention: Infants follow adult cues, indicating understanding of intentions.

Critiquing Piaget

• Contributions: Revolutionized the understanding of early cognitive development.

• Challenges: Studies like Bailargeon suggest earlier grasp of physical reality than Piaget proposed.

Terms to Learn

• Sensorimotor Stage

• Schemas

• Assimilation

• Accommodation

• Adaptation

• Social Cognition

• Joint Attention

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Life Stages and Primary Tasks:

  • Infancy (birth - 1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust (attachment)

  • Toddlerhood (1 - 2 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

  • Early Childhood (3 - 6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

  • Late Childhood (6 years to puberty): Industry vs. Inferiority

  • Adolescence (teens into twenties): Identity vs. Role Confusion

  • Young Adulthood (twenties to early forties): Intimacy vs. Isolation

  • Middle Adulthood (forties to sixties): Generativity vs. Stagnation

  • Late Adulthood (late sixties and beyond): Integrity vs. Despair

Attachment: The Basic Life Bond

• Definition: A powerful emotional bond between caregiver and child.

• Historical Perspectives:

  • Behaviorist view: Attachment tied to food reinforcement.

  • Ethological view: Attachment linked to survival instincts.

    • Bowlby's research highlights attachment’s crucial role in development.

Attachment Phases Overview

• Preattachment Phase (Birth to 3 Months): Reflexive actions contribute to attachments; social smiles emerge.

• Attachment in the Making (4 to 7 Months): Differentiation of caregiver from strangers; early trust develops.

• Focused Attachment (7 to 8 Months): Recognition of caregivers; emergence of separation and stranger anxiety.

• Working Model (age 3): Internal representation of the caregiver evolves.

Secure and Insecure Attachments

Categories of Attachment

• Securely Attached: Positive emotional bonds.

• Insecure Attachments:

  • Avoidant: Indifference toward caregiver.

  • Anxious-Ambivalent: Clinginess and anxiety.

  • Disorganized: Confused attachment behaviors.

Synchrony and the Attachment Dance

• Definition: Caregiver's sensitivity to infant signals fosters secure attachments; misreading signals can create insecurity.

• Influences: Child temperament and caregiver's past attachment experiences can impact attachment quality.

Effects of Attachment on Development

• Secure attachment correlates with social competence.

• Insecure attachment may lead to emotional and interpersonal challenges later in life.

• Disorganized attachment is a strong predictor of future behavioral issues.

Dads and Development

• Parental Involvement: Dads contribute uniquely through play and excitement, linked to self-control outcomes.

Setting for Development: Poverty Impact

• Consequences of Early Childhood Poverty: Higher stress levels, food insecurity, and reduced educational opportunities.

Effects of Prolonged Stress

• Health Risks Include:

  • Anxiety

  • Depression

  • Heart disease

  • Digestive issues

Interventions for Disadvantaged Children

• Programs: Head Start, Early Head Start, preschool, daycare; aim to enhance social and intellectual development but cannot fully mitigate negative school impacts.

Terms to Learn in Relation to Attachment and Development

• Primary attachment figure

• Proximity-seeking behavior

• Pre-attachment phase

• Focused attachment

• Separation anxiety

• Social referencing

• Working model

Conclusions

• Attachment and Psychosocial Development: Early attachments are critical for healthy development, influencing relationships and mental health later in life.