SESSION 11

Monosaccharides and Their Structures: Monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates, vary based on the number of carbon atoms (e.g., glucose, fructose). They are polar, dissolve in water, and serve as energy sources.

Why Carbohydrates Are Hydrophilic: Carbohydrates contain polar carbonyl (C=O) and hydroxyl (-OH) groups, forming hydrogen bonds with water, making them hydrophilic.

Formation of Glycosidic Bonds: A glycosidic bond forms through a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides, releasing water. Examples include sucrose and maltose.

Location of Glycolysis: Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, breaking down glucose into pyruvate and producing ATP and NADH.

Regulation of Glycolysis: Glycolysis is regulated by ATP levels via feedback inhibition of the enzyme phosphofructokinase. High ATP levels inhibit glycolysis, and the pathway resumes when ATP levels drop.

Energy Acquisition by Organisms:

• Autotrophs: Use sunlight in photosynthesis to make sugars.

• Heterotrophs: Obtain energy from consuming carbohydrates.

• Cellular respiration oxidizes glucose to release energy for ATP production.