Untitled Flashcards Set

Chapter 28: La Revolution

Popular Sovereignty

• 18th - 19th Cent: Revolutionist draw on Enlightenment ideals and promote government which rule in interest of the people

  • Argued for popular sovereignty: Power comes from the people

  • US Revolt, French Revolt,

• Most common gov type was Monarchy in settled agricultural societies through history

  • Other less common include democracy (everyone), republican (representative) and aristocratic (upper class, especially in decentralized areas)

• Monarchs justify rule with religion

  • Mandate of heaven in China + Divine right in Europe

  • Some were just religious leaders or worked closely with them

• Enlighten begin holding monarchs more accountable to the people, and most did not directly challenge them

  • John Locke: English, Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) 

    • People give power to gov but retain their rights

    • People are able to rebel and depose gov if they violate people’s rights

    • People willing give up power, and can also take power back (power comes from the people)

  • Voltaire: French

    • Resented lack of religious tolerance and gov censorship

      • People sometimes print books in Swiss or Dutch and smuggle into France

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: French-Swiss, The Social Contract (1762)

    • Thinkers condemn the elites for having legal and social privilege

    • Jean said ideal society would be everyone having a say on laws and policies, and with no elites; ruled by general will of people

• Most thinkers were of common birth, but lived comfortably

  • They wanted to improve their social standings and limit elites’ powers

  • Did not envision a society for marginalized groups such as women, colored, children, slaves, peasants, etc

• Enlightenment Ideals primarily spread by revolutionist when justifying their overthrow

Revolutions

• American

  • American colonies were contempt during the 1750s

  • All colonie had somewhat autonomy bc distance from UK and most had legislation over own laws and policies

  • American colonies begin getting angry when British started to impose taxes to pay for debt from 7-years war (also included the French and Indian War) as it took away from their autonomy

    • Sugar Act (1764): Molasses 

    • Stamp Act (1765): Publication and documents

    • Quarter Act (1765): Required lodging for UK soldiers

    • Townshend Act (1767): Imported goods

    • Tea Act (1773): Tea

    • Forced colonies to carry cargo only on UK ships and clear UK customs

  • US argued that it had protection under common-laws 

    • English Civil War: King need Parl to pass laws

    • Bill of Rights (1689): Consent of Parl is needed to tax people + other rights

  • US protest by boycotts, attacking UK official, Boston Tea Party (1773), Continental Congress (1774)

  • War starts in 1775 when militia and UK troops clash at Lexington

  • Declaration of Independence: July 4, 1776 (Nah, Imma do my own thing)

    • Inspired by enlightenment ideals

    • Included grievances against Uk

    • Declared US an independent state with power to do its own thing 

  • British advantages:

    • UK had the strongest Navy + strong army

    • 20% of White colony were loyalist/Tories

    • Small amount were neutral, like the quakers

    • Some Natives support US if they depend on trade with US

    • Most Natives <- of Missi supported the UK bc they distrust US

    • Had a moral ground in that revolutionist were calling for freedom but own slaves

      • Uk also promised slaves freedom if they won, but was half hearted

  • British weakness:

    • Logistics and supply lines

    • US mili and eco support from Europe (France, Spain, Dutch, some German)

  • War end with battle of Cornwallis in Oct 1781

  • Peace talks in Sept 1783 in Peace of Paris, and UK recognizes US as sovereign country

  • Leaders draft Constitution in 1787 to gift rights to the people, based on Enlightenment principles

    • Granted mainly to rich white men

    • No marginalized groups or property-less white men 

    • Would change over time as groups protested and rallied

• La Révolution de France

  • French wanted to replace the whole existing social order (cultural, social, political), unlike the US 

    • Ancien régime (old order)

  • Revolutionaries had less gov experience though (foreshadowing…)

  • Began due to high amount of war debt France had (7 years war, support US Revolution, etc)

  • Louis XVI decided to raise taxes

    • Peasants already have too much taxes, so he raise taxes on nobles (did not pay taxes)

    • Nobles get angry so force king to call general assembly

  • General Assembly: Established to represent the people in groups called estates

    • Three estates: Roman Catholics, Nobles, Rest of France

    • First Estate: 100k Catho

    • Second Estate: 400k nobles

    • Third Estate: 24,000k basically any non Catho, non Elite

    • Each estate has 1 vote, with most votes deciding on 

    • Louis XVI calls on assembly to meet to raise taxes, but can’t influence them (like how the president can suggest bills but not directly start them)

      • Commoners call for social and political reforms, but receive little support from other two estates (Blocked by 2-1 majority)

      • Third estate secedes from GA, and forms the national Assembly

  • Insurrection starts July 14, 1789 when Parisian crowd storms the Bastille garrison looking for weapons

    • Massacres the guards, and mounts commander head on pike

    • Leads to more insurrections across all of France

  • Nation Assembly declares the rights of the people in August 1789 with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

  • France made changes between 1789 - 1791 with National Assembly

    • Motto of Liberty, equality and fraternity

    • Abolished taxes paid to landlords

    • Made church considered to be commoners

    • Took church lands away

    • Changed gov from Monarch to Constitutional Monarch

    • Gave land-owning males right to vote (half of male pop)

  • France begin declaring war on other countries bc some nobles try to reinstall Monarch with foreign assistance

    • Declared war on Austria + Prussia (4/1792)

    • Spain, Dutch, UK (1793)

  • Created a new legislative body called the Convention full of revolutionary leaders to guide country

    • Abolished Cont Monarch, and install republic

    • Conscripted soldiers and drafted resources en mass (levée en masses, mass levy)

  • France falls into chaos 

    • Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobin party dominates Convention and makes a series of dramatic social changes between 1793 and 1794

    • Execution of King and Queen

    • No Christ and religion, and priest must take wives

      • Promoted secular “Cult of reason” as Christ Alt

    • New 10 day-week calendar w/ no religious holidays (still 30 day in month)

    • New year, new me ah year reform with year 1 starting at Sept 22, 1792.

    • Forced people to wear working-class clothes

    • Gave women rights (chat, are they locked in?)

      • Could inherit + divorce

      • Still no political power

    • Killed people with Guiltione and imprisoned a lot

      • 1793-1794: 40k deaths, 300k imprisoned

      • Feminists like Olympe de Souges killed bc she tries to extend women’s rights

  • Succeeded by the Directory (1795-1799) after Convention locked in and arrested and killed Robespierre and his allies bc he killed other members who he disliked

    • Ruled by conservative men of property

    • Tried to find balance between old gov and radical revolution

    • Plagued by eco and milit problems

  • Napoleon succeeded the Directory in a Coup

    • Was a strong milit leader born in Corsia (annexed in 1768)

    • Won campaign in north Italy, but lost campaign in egypt against UK (try to prevent access to India)

    • Overthrew gov in 1799 on return from Egypt

    • Established Consulate, and “shared” power with 2 other consuls

    • Crowned himself emp in 1802

  • Napoleon brought stability to France

    • Ended beef with Cathos through Concordat pact

      • France keeps church lands, but pays church salaries

      • Gave rights to Protest and Jews

      • Roman Catho is preferred religion in France

      • Get support from people bc they hated the “Cult of Reason” religion

    • Civil Code (1804)

      • Established merit sys for education based on talent alone

      • Extend rights to all men

      • Protected private property

        • Allowed enemies of republic to come back and reclaim some land

      • Enforced many moderate policies, and retract radical policies

      • Patriarchal control in household reinstated 

      • Became the model for codes in Spain,  Italy, Dutch, Latin America, Quebec, and Louisiana (the french province)

    • Napoleon did not support intellect freedom or democracy

      • Used military leaders to keep his power and assembly in check

      • Censored and limited speech

        • Used secret police and spies extensively

      • Propaganda to manipulate public opinion

      • Established dynasty 

    • Napoleon expanded French Empire into Iberia, Italy, Dutch and made Prussia, Austria and Russia recognize France hegemony 

    • Fall bc disastrous campaign into Russia

    • Third coalition of UK, Prusia, Austria, Sweden, Naples, Sicily and Russia marches on France 

    • Forced Napoleon to resign, although he comes back and loses a second time at battle of Waterloo.

      • Island of Elba then St. Helena (escapes from Elba in March 1815)

      • April 1814, July 1815

Influence of Revolution

• Revolutions in US and France appealed to Social Reformers in Europe and revolutionist in Americas

• Haitian Revolution

  • Only successful slave revolt in history

  • Located on the west of the Caribbean Hispaniola island (Saint-Domingo)

  • Richest Euro country, accounting for ⅓ of French Foreign trade

    • Sugar, Coffee, Cotton

  • 3 Classes

    • 40k Whites

      • Some minor nobles who owned plantations

      • Others artisans, shopkeepers, laborers etc

    • 28k (gens de couleur, people of color)

      • Many Mulatoos but some Africans

      • Mainly like lower class whites

      • Some did own slaves + property

    • 500k slaves

      • Some Mulatoos but many Africans

  • Conditions were harsh and brutal, with high death rates leading to tension between whites and slaves

    • Stopped importing new slaves since price became too high after 18th century

  • Plant owners live in constant fear of rebellion bc outnumbered 1:10

  • Some slaves (maroons) flee to mountains and set up settlements where they attacked and stole from plantations (supplies + recruits)

  • 500 gens were sent to American Revolt, which brought back reform ideas

    • In addition to French revolt, they begin demanding access to polt and legal rights but were denied by whites

    • Lead to civil war May 1791

  • Vondu priest Boukman recruits 12k slaves in Aug 1791 for slave revolt, which surges up to 100k with some support from maroons

    • Many slaves had war experience, allowing them to organize a large effective army

    • Infighting between 3 classes

    • French sends troops 1792 to calm calm

    • British and Spain arrives 1793 to annex in chaos

  • Boukman succeeded by Francios Dominique Toussaint (l’ouverture, the opening)

    • Learned to read and write from Roman Priest

    • Built strong disciplined army by 1793

    • Pulled strings to caused foregin powers to infight

    • Carefully fought for power w/ other generals

    • Controlled most of island by 1797

    • Declared equality for all by 1801, but did not secede from France bc fear of invasion

  • Napoleon sends 40k soldiers to island

    • Toussaint tries to negotiate but is captured and killed in France prison

    • Yellow fever ravish french troops so rebels push them out

    • Declares independent late 1803, establishes Haiti new year of 1804

• Latin America

  • Revolutionary ideals spread from Saint Domingo to Iberian colonies

  • Creoles resented Iberian control and wanted to replace the peninsulares (whites born in iberia) + keep their social privileges

    • They were still privileged in the sense they had plantations and ranches + traded with Spain and Porto

  • Between 1810-1815, Creoles led movements which declared independence to most spanish colonies, except Cuba + Puerto Rico

    • Established creole dominated societies instead

  • Revolts begin in 1810 caused by weakening of Iberian authority since Napoleon invaded Iberia in 1807

  • Argentia, Venezuela, and Mexico begin revolting

    • Mexico had Miguel Hidalgo which rallied natives + mestizo against colonists and elites (including creoles) in a peasant revolt

    • Was killed by conservative creoles

  • Creole general Augustin de Iturbide in 1821 declares Mexico independent from Spain

    • Becomes emp in 1822

    • Killed and overthrown by creoles 1823, becomes un republic

    • South Mexico forms Central American Federation 1825-1838, until they succeeded (like Yugoslavia breakup 1991, iykyk) into Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica

  • Creole generals such as Simon Bolivar helped take up arms and fight in South America for independence

    • Take up in 1811, but setbacks + 2 exiles (Napoleon iykyk)

    • 1819 crush Spain in Columbia

    • Fight in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru

    • Joined with other generals like Jose de San Martin (Arg) + Bernardo O’Higgins (Chi)

    • Wanted to form a central state like the US

    • Did get Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador to form Gra Colombia

      • Dissolved by 1830s bc of political disagreement and differences

      • Bro gave up and said South America is ungovernable, chat

  • Brazil get independence in 1822 when price of Porto, Pedro agrees

    • Happened bc Porto court flees to Brazil in 1807-1821 bc Napoleon invades

    • King instills Pedro as regent when he leaves 1821

    • Creoles demanded indep, and bro agreed (did he cook, chat?)

    • Cortes (Parliament) tries to curb his power, so he declares independence

  • Despite change, society still very rigid

    • All that changed was that creoles become dominant instead of peninsulares 

    • Creoles gave militi power to loyal leaders known as caudillos

    • Continued slavery, repression of lower classes, wealth of the roman church

Social Ideals

• Two ideologies evolved in the wake of US and French revolutions: Conservatism and Liberalism

• Conservatism

  • Viewed that society was an organism that changed over time

  • Disliked sudden and radical change

  • Edmund Burke: English

    • Society was made of the past, current and future gens

    • Allowed change as long as it was natural and gradual (US Revolt)

    • Disliked change that was radical (French Revolt)

• Liberalism

  • Welcomed change and thought it was natural

  • Viewed conservatives as trying to maintain the status quo and privileges of the elites

  • Championed enlighten values for high moral and promoted republican gov

  • Classical liberalism was more concerned with civil rights and not political and social rights and limiting gov influence

    • So marginalized groups still didn’t see much change (e.g voting rights)

  • Changed over time as people demanded more rights, so social and political included, and begin relying on gov to address social issues

  • John Stuart Mill: English eco, philo, social reform

    • Argued that wealthy should not restrict freedoms of poor, but poor also couldn’t demand needs from the wealthy

    • Universal voting right to promote individual freedoms

    • Wanted to tax rich businesses and individuals

      • Prevent them from restricting individual freedoms

    • Wanted to give rights to women and working class

• Challenges to Ideals: SLAVERY

  • Anti Slavery movement begin in 18th cent by freed slaves (e.g Olaudah Equiano) and the Euro moralist (1780s)

  • Gain attraction after US, French and Haiti revolts

    • William Wiberforce: English Philan  + Parliament

      • Attacked the morality of slavery

      • Helped passed his bill to ban slave trade in 1807 w/ support from others bc they fear reliance may lead to larger and more slave revolts (precedent from haiti)

      • Pressured other country to ban slavery commercially, and then patrolled west African coast with Navy to enforce ban

      • US (1808), France (1814), Dutch (1817), Spain (1845)

      • Trade still continued to happen, but on a much smaller scale

  • Ban on slavery was much harder

    • Slavery owners did not want it banned bc it provided them immense wealth

    • Haitian revolt and Simon Bolivar freeing slaves which joined his army and constitution helped set precedent to end slavery 

    • Mexico end slavery bc they wanted to stop slave owners from US encroaching on their lands (1829)

  • 1833, with efforts from Wilberforce, UK abolishes slavery

    • Provided 20 million sterling compensation to all slave owners in empire

    • France (1848), US (1865), Cuba (1886), Brazil (1888)

  • Despite being freedom, most Africans and slaves did not get any social freedoms and continued to be oppressed by society

• Challenges to Slavery: Women’s rights

  • Women argued they had limited rights in society, and used enlightenment ideals to argue they should yet society was conservative and no change happen until 20th cent

  • Mary Wollstonecraft: English writer, A Vindication of the rights of Woman

    • Argued that women should possess all the rights that men have based on Locke’s teachings

    • Women should have access to education, so they better mothers + wives and prepare them for job and participation in voting

  • Women helped revolt efforts

    • Supportive: Helped sew uniforms, prepare bandages, maintain farms, stores, etc

    • Direct: Protest (Parisian women in Oct 1789 storm castle to demand crown to lower prices of bread)

  • National assembly + Convention helped give women some rights, but were taken away after Napoleon’s rise

    • Rights = Free education, inheritance and right to divorce

    • No other country had more women’s right than early revolutionary france

  • Elizabeth Cady Stanton: American

    • Became inspired when she was barred entry in London conference on antislavery bc she a women (1840)

    • Decided to lock in and form conference of women and passed 12 resolutions demanding that lawmakers give rights to women (1848, education, vote, jobs + politics)

  • Women's right begin increasing in 19th cent, w/ education but still do not have job, voting or political freedoms

Nationalism

• Due to the effects of the Wars of the 1st coalition and Napoleonic wars, wartime experiences help unite groups of people together

• European Nationalists help unite groups base on national identity and organize them to work together and for the national community

• Nation: groups of people who share a common language, customs, traditions, values, and historical experiences.

  • Historically, people identify themselves by their families, clans, cities etc but now ident by their nation

  • Nations often had common religion, but other overlooked religion as not part of national identity

  • Led to nationalism in which the people within a nation would work together for the interest of the nation, often at the expense of other nations

• Nationalists begin fostering pride in their nation’s historical and cultural achievements

  • Focused on the uniqueness of their nation

  • Distinguished themselves from others w/ historical experiences 

  • Valued the arts and literature of their nation to praise their volksgeist (essense of the community)

  • Johann Gottfried von Herder: German

    • Praised the German volk (people) and the language

  • Jakob and William Frimm

    • Collected popular literature and songs

    • Wrote literature of their own

    • Used to express the uniqueness of the German people

• Nationalists begin alleging themselves to be loyal to only their nation

  • If in minor or in foreign lands, nationalist would establish independent communities to continue supporting interest of states

  • Giuseppe Mazzini: Italian

    • Formed Young Italy to get support to get independence from Spain and Austria

    • Lived most of life in exile, but also helped stir nationalism in those lands (Ireland, Swiss, Hungary)

  • Lead to increased tensions, especially with other nationalist from different nations and minorities in their own nation

• Anti-Semantism

  • Rising nationalism fueled suspicions towards jews which often were minority in society

  • Varied from country to country

    • Little in Dutch and Italy

    • High in Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary

  • Often lead to violence in East Euro

    • Persecution of jews in Russia-controlled Poland and Russia

    • Massacres

  • Jews often fled to North America or Western Europe (e.g France) 

  • The arrest of Jewish Officer Alfred Dreyfus of Germany in 1894 for espionage lead to an increased of distrust towards Jews

• Zionism

  • Political movement that stated Jewish people are themselves a nation and should have a national homeland

  • Jews at the time were scattered all over Europe

  • Theodor Herzl: Jewish, Judenstaat

    • After seeing the people in Vienna yelling “Death to the Jews” during Dreyfus’ trial, he realized anti-semaintism was part of society and couldn’t change

    • Judenstaat: Argued that only way to stop jewish hate was for all jews to i immigrate to one land

    • Organized and founded Zionist Congress and World Zionist organization

      • Created plan for Zionist movement and move to Palestine where Kingdom of Israel used to sit

      • Led to tension and future conflict between Palestines and Israels

• France’s republic and motto of liberty, equality and fraternity inspired patriotism and nationalists, especially in the face of foreign armies invading

  • Napoleonic wars in turn inspired nationalism in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Dutch and UK

• Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): Meeting after fall of Napoleon

  • Consisted of UK, Austria, Prussia and Russia, all conservatives

  • Wanted to restore balance and stability to Euro like the olden days

    • In turn they prevented revolution and nationalism

  • Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria:

    • Helped restore states to their pre Napoleon borders

    • Reinstall royal families to power in lands Napoleon conquered

    • Created a diplomatic sys to attempt to prevent one state from becoming too powerful

    • Wanted to suppress nationalism, since Austria was made up of diverse groups of people

  • Suppressed nationalism and revolutions through censoring press and speech

  • Used spies to find revolutionist and nationalists

• 1820s-1840s, Euro saw revolts anyway (Chat, Congress of Vienna did not lock in and cook)

  • Greece: 1821, seeking independence from Turks

    • Got support from the west (UK, France Russia)

    • Forced Turks out of Balkans (1827) 

    • Won recognition of  independence (1830)

  • France, Spain, porto + parts of Germany (1830): Rebellions

    • Called for constitutional gov based on popular sovereignty 

    • France forced Charles V away from the throne

  • Belgium and Poland

    • Demanded independence to form national states

  • Only success?

    • Belgium leaving Dutch

    • France then form 2nd republic in 1848

• Second wave in 1848 

  • Prussia, Austria, Italy, Germany

  • Austria in particular experienced a large-scale uprising which caused the Prince to resign and flee Vienna

  • By 1849, leaders had put down rebellions

Unification

• First true unification came in Germany and Italy, who became decentralized after the fall of Rome

• Italy

  • South Italy = Spanish influence bc relations between Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Spanish monarch

  • After Congress of Vienna, North Italy = Austria possession

  • Lead to uprisings in 1820, 1830, and 1848

  • First actually unification came when Count Camillo di Cavour, prime minister to King Vittore Emmanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia allied with nationlists

    • With alliance w/ France, they expell Austria from North Italy (Lombardy)

  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: Nationalist soldiers

    • Fought over South Italy w/ soldiers and used tactics to outsmart gov soldiers

    • Conquered all of Southern Italy, and give lands to King Vittore, uniting most of Italy (bro was a chill guy, frfr) in 1860

  • Eventually Ventia (1866) and Papal States were conquered (1860-1870), fully unifying the country

• Germany

  • German conservatives suppressed the 1848 rebellion

  • Started in 1862 when King Wilhelm I of Prussia appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister

  • Bro used violence and pulled strings to get into conflict with Denmark, Austria and france, unifying the countries against an foreign enemy (1864-1870)

  • Bro locked in and cooked the opps ez frfr, massively surging national pride within the country

  • 1871, Prussian King declares the Emp of the 2nd Reich (2nd German Kingdom), including all german speaking people, even in Swiss and Austria

• Rise of nationalism w/ a strong state could create a even stronger state with the backing of the people

• Nationalism often leads to the reform of a national flag, anthem, etc to symbolize their patriotism and nationalism.

Chapter 29: Industrialization

• Industrialization: Shifting of eco from farming + artisan work to manufacturing based on machinery

  • Primarily due to technological advancements and the organization of labor

  • Started in 17th cent in which high food output lead to high pop and high pop density, which in turn led to specialization of occupations

  • Roads and rivers allowed trade to prosper and banking helped establish business 

• Coal played an important role in industrialization as it provided a source of fuel to replace the traditional wood that had been used until 18th cent

  • Without it, industrialization would likely not have been possible in UK, and likely in other places

• The Americas provided raw materials for Europe, which helped rejuvenate the economy in Europe in which the mats were impossible to produce

  • Sugar in Brazil + Caribbean = Calories

  • Cotton in South US = Textile

• Industrialization begin in UK with Cotton industry

  • During 17th cent, UK begin picking up Calicoe, cotton clothing because light, easy to wash and dry than wool

  • Parliament pass Calico Acts of 1720 and 1721 to protect woolen industry by restrict imports of cotton cloth, and trade domestically of it

  • To keep up with cotton demands, artisans by 1730s begin to use devices to spin and weave cotton clothing faster

  • 1733, Manchester Mechanic John Kay makes flying shuttle which sped up weaving of clothing, increasing demand for threads/spinning

  • Competition and innovation in next few years gradually resulted in more sophisticated inventions for spinning

  • 1779: Samuel Cromptoon: “mule”

    • 1790: Adapted to use steam power, and could spin cotton thread 100x faster than manually spinning

  • 1785: Edmund Cartwright (Clergy): Water-powered loom which increased production of thread

    • Replaced by power loom 20 years later, which by 1820s began keeping up with demand for thread

  • All this led to huge  cheap textile goods + job creation and cotton textiles exports (accounted for 40% of exports) by 1830s

• James Watt (Instrument maker): General-Purpose Steam Engine, 1765

  • Used steam to push a piston, which turned a wheel, allowing it to be general purpose

  • People coined horsepower to measure energy generated by the engine

  • By 1800, begin appearing in industries, primarily in textile

• Iron industry in UK boomed bc they switch from charcoal (made by expensive and scarce wood) to coke (version of purified coal)

  • Also allowed the construction of larger blast furnaces, which make production of iron easier, leading to drops in prices of iron and contributing to industrialization

  • Replaced by steel later, but not until 19th cent bc expensive to make

  • Henry Bessemer: 1856, Bessemer Converter

    • Made steel cheaper to produce, and in larger quantities

    • Lead to steel becoming cheaper which made tools and equipment more sturdy and resilience

• General purpose steam engine consumed too much coal, so people begin developing engines that consumed less fuel after patent expired

  • George Stephenson: Steam-powered locomotive, 1815

    • First steam locomotive

    • When up to 45 kmph

  • Was not efficient enough to be used in ships, so sailing boats remain prominent until mid 19th cent

• Trains + ships led to decreased cost in transportation by carrying lots of cargo

  • Also connected remote regions as they led to creation of transport networks

  • Ships could also travel to locations where sailboats can’t bc of wind

  • Both also carried passengers

Factories

• Putting out system replaced by proto-industrial factories

  • Shift from <10 people to hundreds

  • Emerged in late 18th cent

  • Grouped specialized workers under one roof

  • Bc machinery was large and expensive, they were placed in specific locations and not at homes

  • Workers came from countryside bc overpopulation, lack of job opportunities and financial difficulties of being farmer

• Factory system relied on workers each doing one part of production, instead of all (division of labor)

  • one chops tree, one carries tree, one carves boat (yes)

  • Three chops trees, carries trees, and carves boat (nah)

  • Adam Smith: Wealth of Nations (1776)

    • Describes factory manufacturing as:

      • “One draws out wires

      • Another straight it

      • A third cuts it

      • A four points it

      • A fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head”

• Factories led to managers which would impose discipline and supervise workers

  • Josiah Wedgewood (1730-1795): Owned a poetry plant, and hold workers to high standards in order to produce high quality goods, and would often smash goods with his peg leg if they were trash

• Division of labor allowed managers to track and understand what to improve on to increase productivity

• Downsides

  • Lead to wealth inequality as rich factory owners could afford machinery, and factory workers worked as unskilled laborers for little pay

  • Created dependency of workers on factory jobs

  • Obsolete of past broad-skills in favor of narrow-defined skills (mostly affect artisans)

  • Worked long hours (12-14 x 6)

  • High risk of worksite injuries or death

  • Had little freedom and strict employer

• Lead to protests

  • 1811-1816: Luddites went wild and destroyed textile machinery bc of low pay and unemployment bc they made textiles by hand

    • Started in Forest FC then spread to Blackburn Rovers FC

    • Enjoyed support bc they operated at night until GOV hang 14 in 1813

• Spread to outside UK was slow bc Gov and companies wanted monopoly, so no exports of machinery, technique or skilled workers (Gatekeeper frfr)

  • People smuggled machinery and techniques out in secret to foreign lands

  • People in Europe and Americas try to use relationships to get skilled experts and techniques

• Spread to France, Germany, Belgium and US by mid 18th cent

  • Begin first in Belgium

  • France had 15k skilled british workers by 1830 to help in metal + textile

  • Germany more slow, but Germany unification allowed Gov to sponsor and promote rapid industrialization

• French revolt + Napoleonic wars help break down trade restriction and guilds

• US had vast lands and resources but little labor force (1800)

  • Attracted migrant laborers + Bankers + businessmen

  • Industrialization begin in 1820s when US entrep drew UK workers, establishing cotton textile industry

  • Lead to the industrialization of other sectors such as shoes, tools, handguns + iron, steel (1870) = leading to US becoming economic powerhouse by 1900

  • Railway construction connected North, South and West bc vast size of US demanded it, which helped provide cheap transport of raw goods

• Eli Whitney: Cotton Gin (1794)

  • Made processing of cotton easier

  • Also designed firearms with interchanging parts and also in large quantity

    • Led to method in which entrep produced parts/articles of a complete product by mid 19th cent, instead of an entire product

• Henry Ford (1913): Assembly Line

  • Designed conveyor system in which workers performed specific tasks at certain parts of the assembly line, and parts were carried along it

• Division of labour + Coordination of operations massively increased productivity

  • Most prominent in how Ford produced half of world car supply in 20th cent, and allowed car prices to drop

  • Division of labour: Everyone does one specific job

  • Coordination of operations: Ensuring jobs interconnect smoothly (e.g assembly lines)

Capitalism + DTM Changes

• Industrialization fueled the growth of capitalism

  • Joint stock companies

  • Established of private businesses

• 1850s-1860s, France + UK pass legal laws which set path for modern corporations

  • By late 19th cent, controlled most business needing a lots of land, transportation, labor, machinery, metallurgy and weapons

  • Led to increase of banks, brokerage firms, etc as corporations increased in size

• Big business begin establishing monopolies in order to protect their large investments and fight off competition

  • Form associations to restrict markets

  • Founded trusts and cartels, which worked to control prices through supply of product

  • Vertical organization: Gains a monopoly by playing a role in all parts of an industry

    • Oil: Drilling, processing, refining, marketing and distribution (Literally Standard Oil Company and Trust (John D Rockefeller)

    • Allows companies to lower prices if they maximize efficiency in all aspects

  • Horizontal organization: Gain a monopoly in an industry by controlling a heavy portion of one part

    • Owning 99% of oil drilling

    • German Firm IG Farben controlling over 90% of production in chemical industry

    • Cartels use this to fix prices, regulate production and divide the market up

  • Continued into 20th cent bc Govs did not address issue and consumers unaware issue existed

    • Some did outlaw these practices in late 19th cent

• Industrialization raise standard of living through decreasing cost of goods (more fancy clothing for example), 

  • Although the very poor did not have enough for these

  • mass production of tools increase efficiency

  • transportation cost decreased bc of steam engines so food became cheap

  • More decoration bc and furniture

• Wealth/job opportunities and increased standard of living led to population growth, migration from rural to urban and increase immigration to countries like US and Argentina

  • Also bc death rates decrease (chat, we in stage 2 of DTM from APES) due to medical advancements, better diets + Sanitation by late 19th cent

    • Vaccines: Edward Jenner (1797) injects 8 yo boy with cowpox, and then smallpox showed that cowpox could provide immunity against smallpox, leading to foundation for other vaccines (Arabs had it first, but too bad the Mongols came).

  • Drop in mortality also bc child mortality rate massively dropped

  • 1800-1900: UK (10.5 -> 37.5 mill), German (18 -> 43 mill)

• Over time population growth slowed bc of stage 3 DTM (chat, literally APES right here)

  • Primarily fueled by birth control

  • Industrialization made access to latex condoms easier, which also protected against the feared syphilis

  • Couples also chose to not have children bc expensive in industrialized society + decreasing child mortality

• Industrialization = Urbanization and migration away from rural 

  • 1800 = 20% of UK in towns and cities

  • 1900 = 75% of Uk in T&C

  • Increased number of cities throughout Europe with pop > 100,000

• Rapid urbanization lead to spread of massive pollutants

  • Burning of fossil fuels polluted the air, leading to disease and especially cancer

  • Sewage from factories + mills led to water pollution, and decrease in sanitation

    • Cholera, Typhus, Dysentery, Tuberculosis

  • Until end of 19th cent, urban death > birth, but pop increased bc of migration (chat, are we being fr rn?)

• High population density w/ little housing led to people living cramped together and even sharing beds = spread of diseases

  • Housing for workers usually near factories and mills and were made poorly

  • Rich lived in suburbs away from urban centers, in elegant housing

• Space not housing = pig herd lands, areas of human waste or still water (brain eating amoeba)

• Late 19th cent GOV pass laws by improving water supplies, improving sewage systems, and passing building code = safer living conditions + less spread of disease (effectively eliminated it)

  • Also built parks and recreational areas to improve QOI

• Migration to US from Europe bc of increasing human population

  • Likely competing for jobs and housing

  • Most intended to return to home, but only some were able to, with vast majority staying

  • Early 19th cent: Coming just for work, UK, German, Nordics, Ireland

  • Late 19th Cent: Fueled by political and economic issues

    • Irish famine

    • UK harsh factories and cramped housing

    • Russian Jews facing anti-semetic laws

    • Allowed US to rapidly industrialize in late 19th cent

Societal Changes

• Industrialization encouraged the ban of slavery, since consumers/market needed to keep factories running, and slaves were poor so can’t buy goods

• Traditional social classes like nobles and priests replaced

  • Upper class: Factory and corporation CEOs (rich ah)

  • Middle class: Skilled workers, management, white collar, small business (benefited from increase wealth produced)

  • Lower class: Blue collar, especially the mines and factories

• Industrialization splits families apart

  • Created distinction between work and home life

  • Different work schedules caused families to spend less time together (14 hour shifts)

  • Replaced pre-industrial with families working together to produce everything

• Men took on more responsibility, as the heavy work they did were seemed as more important than home chores and farming + light industrial work women and children now did

  • Also earned more money w/ salary being most of household earnings

• Upper and Middle class men tried to impose discipline and norms onto the lower class

  • Upper class, Middle class: Read books and go to lectures about business and culture

  • Lower class: Gambling, Drinking, Football, Baseball, Dog + Rooster fights

  • Up + Mid often establish urban police to curb low behavior, but often fail and low continued to do their own thing

• As industrialization continued, women were encouraged to not work but raise children + care for the house (esp by late 19th cent)

  • Pre-Industrial, work and house were nearby bc farm

  • Post industrial, factory and house far apart, so married women need sitter for child if they wanted to work

• Working-class women were still expected to work for family bc man low wage

  • Still made much less than men

  • Most went into domestic labor (servants) since middle class wealth increase provided demands for such labor

  • Small minority went into factories, especially in early years of industrialization when women and children were thought better to operate in textile

    • Later replaced due to increasing innovation, reducing demand for personnel

  • Unmarried women often send money home, but some save for dowry or saving for better job (clerk + secretary)

• Middle Class (also applicable to upper class) women did not work, and were expected to take care of household

  • Mrs John Sandford: Women in Her Social and Domestic Character (1833)

    • Described ideal UK women as someone who took care of domestic needs and takes pride in caring for the house and family

    • Should not be independent as it it unfeminine (take a job)

• Children were expected to work in early indust societies, and often exploited

  • Children in UK textile mill work from dusk to dawn and beaten + had little break time

  • UK Parliament pass laws regulating child labor (1840), then restrict + ban later on

  • Overtime urban children role shifted from working to education bc moral concerns + need for skilled and educated workforce

    • UK children 5-10 need to go to school (1881)

  • Rural children still expected to work on family farm and provide labor

Socialism + Capitalism Critics 

• Socialists = Social critics

• Socialist were first to critique capitalism due to wealth inequality and the exploitation of workers (especially in women and children)

  • Wanted to expand enlightenment ideal of equality to economics as well

  • Socialists had different visions of what was equitable society

• Utopian Socialist

  • Wanted to create an ideal and equitable community, which they hope society would adopt

  • Charles Fourier: 

    • Long-time salesman, but hated capitalism competition

    • Called for social changes to better serve human needs

    • Planned and model communities in which work was done by love of the collective and not because they need money for own needs

  • Robert Owens

    • Successful businessman 

    • Opened community in New Lanark, 1a cotton mill town

    • Made some balance changes to increase happiness

      • Reduce work hour (17 -> 10)

      • Increased housing space

      • Goods cost reduced

      • Provided education for children built in 1816

      • Young children kept out of work

    • Left a lasting impression on socialism w/ his critique of capitalist competition, education for children and cooperation in industry

  • Their loyal followers face economic and political hardships in countries from UK to Romania when they tried to copy and establish their own communities

  • Died down by mid 19th cent, and people begin looking to establish socialism through organization of working class people

• 19th Cent (German) Socialists

  • Karl Marx + Friedrich Engel

  • Criticised utopian socialists for being idealistic in adapting their community to society as whole

  • Society problem due to capitalism

    • 2 groups of people, Capitalists (fact owners) and proletarians (laborers)

    • Competition between Capitalists led to exploitation of proletariats

    • Gov + Police served to enforce Capitalist, and allow them to continue exploit of proletariats

    • Music, art, lit, religion were seen as a distraction for proletariats from the miseries of life, serving to keep their in exploitation

      • Marx said that religion = “opiate of the masses” since it focuses on hypothetical and distracts away from their miserable reality

  • Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848): Marx + Engel

    • Declared themselves communists, who would work to dissolve private property

    • Stated that history was struggle between social classes

    • Eventually overproduction, underconsumption and low profits +workers uprising would end the Capitalist societies

    • Workers start dictatorship to end capitalism, then dissolve away when finished

    • Became popular throughout Europe and internationally throughout 19th cent

    • Political parties, labor unions, newspapers and schools advance socialist cause

    • Revolutionary socialists: Only way to change society was workers taking control of state

    • Evolutionary socialists: Revolution will not work, and it is best to elect representatives in Gov who are sympathetic to socialist causes

• Reform

  • Under pressure from public, Gov begin actually locking in and passing laws

  • Parliament banned women and children <10 from mining 

  • Children <9 no more than 9 hour a week

  • 1830s-40s = Restrictions on women work hours to make them care for the family

    • Reduce work opportunities

  • Late 19th cent: German give retirement pensions, min wage, (sick, incident, injury) insurance, and restructure working hour

    • Many countries follow suit

    • Led to modern welfare state

• Trade Unions throughout history seeked to improve working conditions + wages

  • Often considered illegal by GOV and employers through most 19th cent

  • Led to violence, esp when employers hired replacements while originals on strike

  • Led to police and military being called to maintain order during violence

  • Led to improvements in QOI of working class, reducing risk of communist revolution bc they make workers happier

• Industrialization led to some countries relying on exporting raw goods and some eco were ruin bc of import of cheap goods from industrialized countries

• Very little outside Europe, North A, and Japan could full industrialized

  • India had jute and small steel industry, but could not flourish bc people don’t have enough capital and no Gov support

• Industrialization increased demand for raw resources,

  • Cotton from India, Egypt, and US

  • Rubber from Brasil, Malaya, and Congo River Basin

• Some countries specialized in, and became rich from exporting raw materials

  • Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, South Africa, Aussies, New Zeal

  • Exported valuable materials, and imported foreign investment and labor

  • People had high income, which led to booming economy and an increased need for innovation to save money

  • Often led to industrialization in turn

• Other countries who exported raw materials did not get better economically

  • Primarily in countries with a heavy reliance on exporting cash crops (cotton, rubber, sugar) (Latin America, SS Africa, S Asia, SE Asia)

  • Limited foreign investment 

  • Profits flow outwards, leaving little for domestic industries to grow

  • Low wages in countries reduce market for consumer goods

  • Foreign industrialization in countries limited opportunities native population to industrialize themselves

• Geographic link between raw material exporters and factory manufacturers linked the economy of the world together

  • Led to bigger ships, docks and deeper canals for transport of goods and people

  • Profits and benefits mainly to Europe, N America and Japan

Chapter 30: Changes in America

• Canada had weak federal gov, with provinces having considerable power over local affairs, and did not have internal divisions leading to civil war

• Latin America was fragmented politically, and had internal division

Building of States

United States

• Early unofficial requirements to vote limited to white, property owning men

  • Property requirement mostly dropped by late 1820s through enlightenment ideals

  • Mid 19th cent, almost all adult white men could be politically active

• After Revolutionary war, UK gives US lands between Appalachian Mt and Mississippi River, doubling size

• 1803, Napoleon need money for wars, so sell Louisiana Territory (Mississippi River to Rock Mountains) to US, doubling US size again

• 1804-1806, Merwether Lewis and William Clark helped map Louisiana Territory and resources

• Settlers head west for cheap land, and had increased dramatically by 1840s

  • Manifest Destiny: Idea that America was destined to expand across the Americas

    • Often used to justify annexation

• Manifest Destiny brought conflicts w/ Natives, who forge alliance inwards and tried w/ UK Officials in Canada 

  • Settlers had backing of US Gov and Military

  • Indian Removals Act: 1830, Removed all Natives East of Mississippi River into Indian Territory (Oklahoma), some resisted

    • March to Oklahoma called Trail of Tears bc many died from starvation + disease, and the overall depressive mood

    • Seminoles: Retreated into Florida Swampy Marshland

    • Cherokee: Most well known on Trail of Tears due to thousands of deaths

• 1840, conflicts extended and mainly in Great plains west of Mississippi River

  • Sioux, Comanche, Pawnee, Apache

  • Tribes had firearms + Good w/ horses, so posed considerable challenge to American expansion

    • Battle of Little BigHorn (1876) : Thousands of Lakota Sioux + Allies beat Colonel Geroge Armstrong Custer’s forces

    • Tribes eventually lose due to US having better military tech (cannons + Gatling Guns)

    • Conflict at Wounded Knee Creek: Massacre of Sioux people of all ages due to gun misfire by male, whites came bc there was religious ceremony about afterlife w/ no white men. Symbolized the harsh treatment of US towards Natives

• US annexing Texas in 1845 lead to US-Mexico War (1846-1848)

  • US instigate war, and crush Mexico forces

  • Treaty of Guadalape Hidalgo (1848):

    • Mexico loses ⅓ of land, and US gets Utah territory for 15 million

    • Some Mexicans in Utah left for Mexico, but some stayed

    • Helped fuel nationalism in Mexico and hatred towards US

• Westward expansion fueled tension in slavery; question raised whether new territories would be free or slave state

Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads

Ottoman Decline

• Military Losses

  • Late 17th Cent, Ottoman military cooked due to falling behind in strats, tactics, weapons and training compared to Europeans

  • Janasires decline in discipline

    • Started 15th cent

    • 17th & 18th cent: Coups in palace

    • 19th cent: Stop training and maintain weaponries but focused on becoming powerful politically

  • Loss of military power allowed local leaders and governor to gain autonomy

    • Requested autonomy and recognition from sultan in exchange for private mercs and slaves

    • Started taxing for self and sending minimum amount to central gov, boosting local powers and starving central gov of money

• Territorial Loss

  • Russia: Caucasus + central Asia

  • Austria: Western regions

  • Independence in Balkans (esp Greece + Serbia, 1830 + 1867) bc nationalism

  • Invasion of Egypt by Napoleon (1798) allowed local elites to take power

    • General Muhammad Ali (1805 - 1848 rule) emerge as leader

    • Model troops after Europe

    • Drafted peasants and trained w/ Italian and French officers

    • Industrialization w/ focus on cotton textile and garments

    • Subservient to Sultan, but really was the one in control of Egypt esp by 1820

    • Only stopped when ambition into Anatolia and Syria was stopped by British who feared a power vacuum would allow Russia to get more powerful

    • TL;DR: Egypt now autonomous

• Economic Problems

  • Decreased trade through Ottoman Empire since Europe use other methods to reach Asian markets (e.g around Africa) throughout late 17th and 18th cent where Ottomans had no blockade

  • Large import of high quality cheap goods from industrialized countries led to unrest among traditional artisan (urban protest)

  • Exported raw materials (cotton grains, hemp indigo, opium) but still at trade deficit (imports>exports)

  • Gov take loans from Europeans mid 19th cent to industries (railroads, utilities, mining enterprises)

    • Interest rates begin growing, and in 1882, gov hands debt to Foreigners to manage bc unable to pay debt

• Foreign Influence

  • Capitulation: Foreigners did not have to follow Ottoman law, and instead could follow law of their country

    • Was originally used in 16th cent for sultan ease of administration over foreign communities, but now was seen as humiliating

  • European businesses could also set up tax-exempt banks and companies inside Empire

  • Also allowed Foreign Govs to tax goods sold in Ottoman ports (levy duties)

Ottoman Reform

• Early 20th cent, Ottoman lack of money = low morale, recruitment hardship + corruption

• Tried raising taxes but lead to peasant exploitation (also likely revolts) and decrease in agricultural production

• Reforms begin early 17th cent when Sultans limit tax, increase agri production and end corruption

• Selim III (1789-1807) remodels mili after Europe

  • Threaten power and position of janissaries who revolted and killed troops + lock up Sultan

  • When successors try to bring back mili, Janissaries kill all male of the dynasty and save Selim cousin Mahmud II to become Sultan (1808 - 1839)

• Muhamud II understands danger, so his shrew mind tries to frame his reforms in a way which seemed to preserve Ottoman tradition

  • 1826: Conflict w/ Janissaries bc reform of mili w/ Europe style, but this time he massacres them when they protest

  • Modeled Mili after Europe, w/ European strats and tactics, uniforms, and mili and engineer schools

  • Build foundation to teach boys science, tech and military after primary education

  • Centralize power through abolishing mili land grants, tax rural landlords and undermine ulama

  • Build European based ministries and improved infrastructure and communications (roads, telegraphs, postal)

  • Empire shrunk when he died, but much more reformed and stable

• Tanzimat (Reorganization) Era (1839-1876)

  • Fueled by increasing defeats and separatist movements

  • Focused on mili reform, but there were some legal changes

  • Based on enlightenment ideals

  • Reformers attacked Otto law to reform it so they could lift capitulation and reinstall sovereignty, and used French Legal system

    • Commercial Code: 1850

    • Penal Code; 1858

    • Maritime Code: 1863

    • Civil Code: 1870-1876

  • Passed personal freedoms (public trial, privacy, equality in front of law (even if not muslim)) but marriage + divorce still a religious law

  • Educational restructuring made the state now responsible from primary to uni education (1846) and hoped to provide free and compulsory education (1869)

  • Reforms undermine Ulama law and placed power into Otto state

  • Four Groups of Critics

    • Muslim Conservatives

    • Minority leaders who fear they lose position and power as bridge between community and central gov

    • Young Turks: Separate origins, but united by wanting more freedoms, autonomy and decentralized gob

    • Inside Otto Gov: Wanted to limit power of Sultan

• 1876 Coup from inside = Abdul Hamid II = Sultan (1876)

  • Install Constitutional Gov w/ representatives due to voices from reformers but suspend 1 year later and kills + execute liberals

  • Continued to develop empire according to Tanzimat for next 30 years

  • Increased education took power from Sultan since it make the people and gov + officers more aware of European ideals and societies, and convince them Sultan power needs to be limited

  • Young Turks Party (Ottoman Society for Union and Progress): 

    • Most vocal dissenters founded in 1889 by ottoman exiles in Paris

    • Argued for more freedoms according to Europeans ideals

    • Inspired army coup in 1908 and forced Abdul to restore Parliament and Constitution of 1876 

    • 1909: Dethroned and established puppet sultan Mehmend V Rashid (1909-1918)

    • Continued to aggravate and promote separatist movements since they try to maintain Turkish hegemony (turk language = official)

Russian Pressures

• Russia in 19th cent tries to expand into Manchuria, caucasus + central Asia and Balkans

• Crimean War (1853-1856): European Expansion into Balkns forced UK, France, Sardinia and Otto to push back Russians

  • Highlighted Russian weakness on the battlefield in comparison to the industrialized societies

  • Also reflected that agrarian-based economy could not fund the ambitious expansion of Russia

• Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) abolished serfdom in 1861, although remained in practice for decades in future

  • Had merit since 18th cent bc of ethics of being similar to slavery and high officials seeing it as a roadblock to economic development

  • Landowners were compensated for loss of land + serfs

  • Little effect on serfs since they forced to pay redemption tax for most of land received, leading many to live lives in debt + little political rights

• Zemstvos (District Assemblies 1864)

  • District assemblies consisted of representatives of social classes which met up to discuss issues

  • Had some peasant representation, but were still under the control and influence of the aristocracy and land owners

• Judicial reform in 1864 established a law system based on west Europe w/ judges and courts, trial by jury, judges who dealt w/ minor offenses, rise in law professions, which reduced judicial corruption.

• Industrialization in Russia was fueled by wanting to develop the Empire to become stronger militarily and politically and by government policy.

• Count Sergei Witte, Minister of Finance 1892-1903

  • Focused on developing the economy through railway systems to link regions throughout Empire, and help develop other industries

  • Most important was trans-Siberian railway which opened up Siberia to development and settlement

  • Remodel state bank and encourage creation of saving banks

  • Help secure foreign investment (esp UK and French in coal and steel)

  • Used tariffs to protect early Russian industries

• Industrialization created urban poor class which suffered long work days, poor pay and bad housing.

  • Lead to frequent strikes even after banned alongside trade unions

  • Gov limit work day to 11.5 hours but had very little impact (1897)

  • Made workers more receptive to ideals of change and revolutionary movement

  • Only class actually happy were businessmen who liked the government’s protection of internal industries and had no material or political reasons to challenge the Tsar unlike in West Europe

• 1870s - 1900, increasing reforms also led to more people becoming radical, especially with lack of change in their QOI (industrialization)

  • Unit students and intellectuals (intelligentsia) formed core of opposition

  • Took inspiration from West Europe Socialism, but rejected materialism and capitalism of it

  • Socialism combined elements of traditional Russian culture

  • Some reformers were anarchists and often use terrorist and assassinations to achieve goals

• 1873-1876, activist go to rural areas to spread radicalism to presents

  • Police arrest them and ship to prison or Siberian exile

  • Led to secret police to break dissenters and censorship of press in order to repress revolutionary thought, which only lead to increased radicalism

  • In Baltics, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, Central Asia, dissenters use their language and schooling as a way to spread separatist ideas which were eventually put down by Russians who only allowed loyalist to get education and forced locals to speak Russian

  • Jews were also targeted, both by Tsarists and dissenters who were jealous of them, leading to jewish migration to west Europe and US

• Land and Freedom Party 1876 established and promoted assassination of prominent officials in GOV

  • 1879, the People’s Will, begin planning to assassinate the king

  • 1881, the terrorists plant bombs in Alexander II’s carriage which kills him, leading to end of reform and era of oppression

  • Successor Nicholas II resorted to oppression and police to control population and tried to expand outwards to distract population but failed in Russo-Japanese War.

  • In response to defeat, public gather to demand more representation leading to soldiers killing 130 protestors (Bloody Sunday) which caused mass unrest socially and in the military as well

  • Eventually led to creation of a legislation called Duma, which had little actually power but was still a concession from GOV’s eyes

  • 1905-1907, unrest (both revolt and ethnic) continue throughout Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, Central Asia, but brutally repressed

China

• 19th cent: Europe beats China and forces unfair treaties, undermining their sovereignty

• 1759: Qianlong sets strict trade between China and European, placing heavy power in China

  • Only warehouses allowed in Guangzhou

  • Only in Guangzhou trading with special firms (CoHong)

  • Set prices on goods

  • Sells goods but don’t need EU goods

• To get enough silver to continue to buy chinese goods, EIC used Persian and Turkish help to farm opium in India to sell to China

  • Exploded: 4500 60kg -> 40,000 60kg chests (1800s -> 1839)

  • Trade continued bc officials didn’t care + sometimes benefited from it

  • 1830s: Officials realized opium trade actually draining silver from China and creating social issues in south china where trade was occuring

  • 1838: 

  • 1839: Gov hires Lin Zexu to seize and destroy opium within country

• Opium War (1839-1842)

  • UK angry so they use military force to reopen opium trade

  • Initial battles highlighted the strength between UK weapons and Chinese weapons and crushes war fleets and capture coastal towns, but GOV doesn’t give up

  • UK sails up Yangtze River to reach the Grand Canal which makes GOV sue peace with aid of steam powered gunboats

  • China faces similar defeats with UK + France (1856-1858), France (1884-1885) and Japan (1894-1895).

• Treaty of Nanjing (1842)

  • UK gets Hong Kong

  • Opens 5 chinese ports (Guangzhoiu to Shanghai) for trade and residence 

  • UK in China not subject to chinese laws, and UK = favored nation status

  • Reflected what treaties between China and other Euro + US + Japan was like later on

  • Lead to more opium trade, spread of Christ, sale of goods, prevented tariffs, effectively undermining the power of the central gov

  • Some also released Korea, Vietnam and Burma from China, which undermine their tributary system

• Population pressures (pop growth but lack of new arable lands to keep up), concentration of lands in wealthy, corruption in gov and drug use led to rebellions throughout China after 1850

  • Nian: 1851-1868 (Northwest)

  • Muslim: 1855-1878 (SW)

  • Tungan: 1862-1878 (NW)

  • Taiping Rebellion: 1850-1864 (Widespread)

    • Almost brought China down

    • Hong XiuQuan

      • Provided leadership and inspiration for rebellion

      • Appealed to people who despised the Manchu ruling class as foreigners

      • Called for destruction of Qing and radical societal transformation

        • Abolish of private property

        • Equality of the sex

        • Communal wealth to be shared

        • No footbinding and concubines

        • Free education & Literacy for mass

        • Simplification of written languages

        • [Establishment of Democracy]

        • [Industrialization]

      • Leadership said no sex, but had large harems

• Appealed to women and men, w/ division between two in mili

• Fought through SE China and got to capital in 1853, and then into rural communities

• Repelled from Beijing in 1855 w/ million force

• Threatens Shanghai in 1860

• Eventually defeated with help of Chinese gentry (since revolt appeals threaten their power) w/ chinese soldiers as encouraged by Empress Dowager CiXi + Euro advisors and weapons 

• Hong XiuQuan withdraw from politics in 1862 for religious reflection + harem and dies from suicide bc illness in June 1864.

  • His death marks end of rebellion as in month follow, Nanjing falls, gov kills rebels and rebellion over by end of month

• Due to foreign influence and internal issues, GOV seeks to reform China (1860-1895)

  • Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)

    • Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use

    • Peaks in 60s + 70s

    • Local autonomous leaders combine chinese culture with western industrialization

    • Rebuild agriculture society while also promoting development of railroads, shipyards, weapons, etc

    • Not widespread enough to actually make a real difference

    • Imperial GOV diverted funds

      • CiXi divert funds to build marble boat for a lake in imperial gardens

    • Contradictions all around

      • Industrialization vs agriculture society

      • Confucian values vs European ideals

• China loses tributaries

  • 1885: Vietnam, France

  • 1886: Burma, UK

  • 1895: Korea+Taiwan+Liaodong, Japan

  • Mining and Railway rights

    • Germany: Shandong

    • France: Southern borders

    • UK: Yangtze RIver Valley

    • Japan: SE Coast

    • Russia: Manchuria

  • Only distrust and competition between Euro prevented full divide up of China

• Hundred Day Reforms of 1898:

  • Lead by Scholars Kang YouWei and Liang QiChao who published Confucian treaties which pushed for a radicalized change in imperial system in order to transform china into powerful industrialized society

  • Did not care for Culture traditions or Agrarian society

  • Impressed Emperor GuangXu who push program to become Constitute Monarch, civil liberties, root corruption, remodel education, encourage foreign influence,  modernize military, and encourage eco development

  • Meet pushback by Imperial household + gentry allies + CiXi who nullify decrees 103 days later, and kill 6 leading reformers + imprison Emperor in Forbidden City

  • Kang + Liang flee to Japan

• Boxer Rebellion

  • CiXi instigates a group of chinese from the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists to rebel in 1899 who kill Foreigners, Chinese Christians and Chinese with ties to foreigners since she believes foreign powers were pushing her to retire

  • Boxers siege Beijing foreign embassies

  • Put down by Foreign armed troops

  • Lead to GOV paying + concessions which allowed foreigner power to station troops in Beijing embassies and to the sea

  • Led to widespread rebellion in country since Qing instigated Boxer rebellion, eventually breaking out in Fall 1911

  • CiXI dies in November 1908, 1 day after Emperor mysteriously dies

Japan

• Japan begin experiencing increasing population pressures and crop failures + famine

• Forced peasants to sell lands and become tenant farmers

• Peasants who moved to urban areas were faced with rising prices of goods and food

• Daimyo and Samurai fell under debt to growing merchant class

• Increased peasant protests and revolts

• Tokugawa Bakufu makes conservative reforms in response

  • 1841-1843: Mizuno Tadakuni, Shogun Chief Advisor tries to fix economic decline and bring power back to government

    • Cancels debts of Samurai and Daimyo to merchants

    • Abolish merchant guilds

    • Compel peasants in urban area to return back home to farm rice

    • Was ineffective and eventually drove from office by opposition

• Foreign pressures by UK, French, and US visits makes GOV start to prepare military to resist attack

  • [Commander] Commodore Matthew C. Perry's arrival in Japan in 1853 forces Japan to open up to trade and diplomatic relationships, resulting in other unfair treaties with Uk, Dutch, and Russia.

  • Forces Japan to give foreigner extraterritorial rights and no tariffs on foreign imports (Domestic industries are cooked, chat)

• Foreign intrusion leads to collapse of Tokugawa and reinstallment of imperial rule

  • Conservative Daimyos and Emperor saw the treaty as humiliating and reflective of the Shogun being supervent to barbarians 

  • Choshu and Satsuma become centers of  discontent Samurais

  • 1858: Court of Kyoto become center point where people came to rally for opposition with motto of Revere the emperor, expel the barbarians

• Tokugawa in response took away titles of Daimyos and kill or imprison Samurais 

  • Resulted in civil war which resulted in dissenters winning with training from foreigners and foreign weapons

  • Jan 3, 1868: Emperor Mutsuhito (Meiji) take power of country

• Meiji government restore Japanese emperor and end military government

  • To get equal treatment with the west, Japan forms a coalition of daimyos, imperial princes, court nobles and Samurai with focus on getting the country strong and prosperous (Rich country, strong army)

  • Use knowledge and expertise of West and US and send students and officials abroad to study everything (tech to constitution)

  • Hired foreign experts to help w/ eco development and train native workers

• Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901)

  • Studied English after Perry’s arrival and was one of the first to study in US in 1860 and later in EU

  • Returned and wrote about his experiences and praised the west’s Constitutional gov and education system

  • Argued for equality before the law

  • 1882-1883: Studies foreign Consusutions and administration as Meiji leaders prepare to draft government and is inspired by German gov after unification and uses parts of it in the Japanese Constitution. 

• Centralize Power

  • Meiji leader persuade Daimyos to yield lands for their titles back

  • New land was divided into prefectures and metropolitan districts ruled by a prefecture governor, effectively removing Daimyos of power

  • Abolished Samurai class and their government salary (stipends).

  • Samurai class were replaced by new conscripted army which were reimbursed by government bonds by official to ease discontent as they lost their status and jobs

  • Bonds fell in value due to inflation and Samurais had to seek other jobs, which caused some to rise in rebellion, but new army too strong

• Tax System Rework

  • Peasants now had to pay taxes in fixed amounts instead of by grain, allowing gov to bypass the fluctuating prices in grains

  • Taxes based on potential productivity of the land, so people who could not max productivity had to sell their lands to more efficient producers

• Constitution

  • With increasing reforms, people wanted representation and the rulers believed that constitutions gave the west their power and unity

  • 1889: Emperor creates Meiji Constitution as a voluntary gift to people

    • Helped by Ito Hirobumi

    • Legislature called Diet composed of house of nobles and elected lower house

    • Limited Diet power and much power in exec branch

    • Emperor = CIC, named prime ministers, and appointed cabinets

    • Prime and cabinets loyal to emperor

    • Emp could dissolve parliament and act as Diet when not in session

    • Power in emp effectively

    • Individual rights, BUT could be limited if deemed necessary by state interests

    • Established property restrictions on voting, so lower diet was filled of wealthy who represented the interests of the wealthy as well

    • Less than 5% of male population could vote in 1890 election

    • Provided opportunities for discussion and debate

• Economic reforms

  • Leaders believed economy = foundation of national strength

  • Created education and modern infrastructure (transport, coms, telegraphs, railroads, steamships) to tie local economies together nationally

  • Removed tariffs on internal trading

  • Improved literacy (40% M, 15% F) in 19th cent

  • Universal primary and secondary education

  • Unis provided advance education, esp in science and tech

  • Improved infrastructure help support rapid industrialization

  • GOV controlled military industry and pilot programs to stimulate industrial growth, before selling off to people with close government ties

    • Resulted in economic power being in the hands of elites called Zaibatsu, financial cliques

  • Early 20th cent, Japan becomes a major industrial power

  • Heavy reliance on peasant tax (40-50%) was used for early industrialization (90% of revenue) and low paying workers were exploited in order to produce textiles to export in order to buy machinery

  • 1883-1884: Peasant rebellions due to conditions, but suppressed w/ leaders killed

  • Meiji government did nothing to help suffering rural population who suffer under malnutrition, starvation and infanticide.

  • No labor unions, bc seen as illegal w/ a grow movement stopped in 1901

  • However, allowed Japan to stand as equals w/ West within a single generation

  • 1899: End of extraterritoriality

  • 1902: Alliance with UK as equals

  • 1894-1895: Beating the Chinese

  • 1904-1905: Beating the Russian Empire

Chapter 32: Global Empire Building

• Imperialism: Coined 1880s, refers to using military or economic (trade, investment, and business) to extract profit from a society and influence politics without directly exercising political control

  • Economics was often more popular

• Colonialism refers not only to migrating settlers to a new area, but also taking the social, political, eco and cultural structure to different lands and replacing Native traditions

  • Was seen primarily in the Americas and the US, but can also apply to small communities in SE Asia, SS Africa and India.

  • Second half of 19th cent, people began believing Imperialism was important for survival of their state and to protect their wealth received under Imperialism and trade

Motives for Imperialism

• Eco Motives:

  • Raw resources for industrialization

    • Rubber (Amazon + Congo + Malaya), Petroleum (Mainly US + RUS, SE Asia), Tin (SE Asia), Copper (C Africa)

  • Provide market for factory goods and place for migrants to migrate to

    • The goods that went to colonies were not MASSIVE, and most migrants went to the US, but this argument helped fuel support for imperialism.

• Politics Motives:

  • Gain access to strategic harbors for resupply and dock merchant ships + naval ships

  • Deny access to rival states to strategic locations

  • Unite the people in patriotic fervor, esp to distract the working class + communists + socialists

    • Otto Von Bismarck use imperialism to persuade Industrialist + Working Class

    • Euro leaders sometimes tried to organize events for subject people to display their culture and customs

• Cultural Motives:

  • Seeked converts in subject lands, like Jesuits

    • Often went against Euro officials and supported Natives

    • Helped communications between Natives + Euro

    • Provided info to Euro

    • Missionary settlements provide place for Euro to gather, and market for Euro goods

  • “Civilized” the Natives through introducing social and political structures 

    • France and le mission civilisatrice (Civilizing Mission)

    • Rudyard Kipling: Burden of Euro + Euro-Americans to bring order and enlightenment to distant lands (“White man’s burden”)

Tech advancements

• Transport Tech: Steamships + railroads:

  • Begin being used militarily 1830s by UK

  • Allowed ships to ignore wind

  • Faster than sailboats

  • Powerful guns added, with ironclad armor

  • Move further upriver than sailboats

    • British Nemesis up the Yangtze river wins UK the Opium War

  • Used later in Africa and Asia

  • Suez Canal (1859-1869) and Panama Canal (1904-1914) help increase travel speed + reduce cost of trade

  • Steamships helped imperialist get control of overseas lands

  • Railroads help imperialist + armies to travel inland quickly and increased speed of trade, and maintain their control

• Military Tech: 

  • Early 19th Cent, Smoothbore muskets: Not very accurate, slow reload, reload from end, Smooth barrel

  • Mid 19th Cent, Rifles: More accurate, Faster reload, Reload near hammer, Spiral ridges in barrel 

  • 1870s-1880s: Experiment with rifled-machine guns, and Maxim gun (11 bullets/s)

  • Allowed Euro to easily overpower their opps

    • 1898: UK forces with 24 machine + 6 gunboats fight Sudan forces at Battle of Omdurman w/ 100s UK deaths, and 1000s Sudan deaths, allowing UK to colonize Sudan

• Communication Tech:

  • Steamboats + Sea routes improved communication between colonies and capitals

    • 1830s: 2 years between London and India bc sailing ships

    • 1850s: 4 months between London and India bc steamships

    • 1869: 2 weeks bc Suez Canal created

  • Telegraphs

    • 1830s: Telegraphs created

    • 1850s: Submarine cables allow telegraphs to be sent over bodies of water (e.g oceans)

    • 1870: Submarine cables carry messages from India to UK in 5 hours

    • 1902: British Empire connects all their colonies, and other states continue to do the same.

    • Rapid communication allowed imperial powers to respond to threats, and merchants to react to economic event

India

• Imperialism begin with conquest of India, which set the stage for competition between states and colonies in C Asia and SE Asia

• Fear of Rivals getting colonies led to massive scramble for colonies in 1880s globally, with almost all of Africa and Pacific being taken

• Begin with the eco activities of the British EIC

• EIC was fueled by Euro demand of Asian goods 

  • Indian pepper + cotton, Chinese silk + Porcelain and SE Asia fine spices, 17th cent

  • Coffee + Tea 18th cent

• Mughal emperors allowed EIC to build forts along the coast for storing goods, docking ships and trading

• After death of Emp Aurangzeb in 1707, Mughal empire weakens and EIC began taking lands as Mughal split into autonomous independent states

• By 1750s, EIC begin conquering Mughal lands through military force or diplomacy; Mughal now around small lands in Delhi

  • Doctrine of Lapse: Hated by Indian rulers, a british doctrine which said EIC would take land of ruler unable to produce a biological male heir

• Mid 19th, EIC takes most of India, and all of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, and Sri Lanka.

• EIC uses small british army + large indian troops (Sepoy)

• 1857: Major Indian uprising due to soldiers refusing to use (needs to bite them) rifle cartridges allegedly lubricated with pig and cow fat (Pig products = haram in Islam, Cow = sacred in Hindu)

  • Led to UK officers punishing Sepoy

  • Sepoy regiment rebel against the UK, leading to Sepoys uniting alongside Indian princes, followers and people who suffered from UK trade+ missionaries + improper social reforms.

  • Led to mass war and atrocities between EIC and Rebels

  • EIC gain advantage by late 1857 and declare peace July 8, 1858

• UK Gov takes control of India after rebellion

  • Exile Mugal emp Muhammad Bahadur Shah in Burma

  • Abolished EIC control, and rule directly

  • Queen Victoria create position called Office of Secretary of State for India (1858) which acted as a viceroy 

  • Lower bureaucracy full of Indians, but Elite Indian Civil Servants almost all english so UK had control over domestic and foreign policies in India

  • UK in India clear forests, reform landholdings, encourage farming of valuable crops (coffee, tea, opium), build extensive infrastructure (railways, canals, harbors), and irrigation systems. 

  • UK did not extensively promote Chrisitanity, but did have English-style schools for Elite children to seek support from rulers

Central + SE Asia

• C Asia

  • Early 19th Cent, France + Rus want to curb UK power and get presence in India

  • France efforts died after Napoleon’s fall, but RUS begin taking lands in C Asia to get to India

  • RUS was interested in C Asia since 16th cent, but weakening Otto and Qing allowed RUS to invade and take lands in C Asia, caravan cities of silk road (Tashkent, Boskara, and Samarkand), and get close to India

  • The Great Game: Competition between Russia and UK for influence in C Asia

    • Included mapping topology and seeking alliances with rulers (from Afghanistan to Aral Sea)

    • Was meant to prepare for a massive war between RUS and UK, but never happened bc of WWI (1914) and the fall of the RUS Empire (1917)

    • Subjected most of C Asia to RUS control until fall of USSR (1991)

• SE Asia

  • Euro already present in SE Asia, but tension increased in 19th cent

    • Spain: Philippines - 16th Cent

    • SE Asian islands: Dutch - 17th Cent

  • Dutch in 19th cent tighten grip over SE Asia, and extend rule through Dutch East Indies (Indonesia’s largest island)

    • DEI produced cash crops (sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco) and raw materials (rubber, tin)

  • UK began expanding their influence into SE Asia to connect trade between India, China and SE Asia starting in 19th cent

    • 1820: Conflict with Burma (Myanmar) Kings over Irrawaddy River delta

    • 1880s: Colonial authority in Burma

    • 1824: Thomas Stamford Raffles founded port of Singapore, which becomes busiest center of trade in Strait of Melaka

      • Controlled by India colonial officials, and used as base for conquest of Malaya (1870s-1880s)

    • Malaya: Allowed UK to control sea lanes between Indian Ocean and S China Sea + Provide Tin + Rubber

  • France, unable to take India, took Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) between 1859-1893

    • Sought connections with local elites + introduced Euro-styled schools

    • Encouraged conversions to Christianity

  • Only non-imperialized SE Asia country was Kingdom of Siam (thailand) which was a buffer state between French Indochina and UK Burma

Africa

• Even by 1875, Africa was not colonized extensively

  • Only colonies were fort trading ports, Angola + Mozambique (Porto), Northern Algeria (France), South Africa (Dutch + UK)

• End of slavery meant slaves no longer a traded good

  • Into: Textiles, Guns, Manufactured goods

  • Out: Gold, Ivory, palm oil

• 1875-1900: Fierce competition between Euro states and potential for exploitation causes Africa to be imperialized within ¼ cent

  • Known as the Scramble for Africa

• Imperialist + merchants used knowledge of the land based on Euro explorers and missionaries

  • Dr David LivingStone (Scottish Minister) traveled through C + S Africa in mid 19th cent

  • Henry Morton Stanley (American Journalist) took a expedition to find Livingstone in Africa, and documented and published it

  • Richard Burton + John Speke (English Explorers) traveled to E Africa to find source of Nile River

• Inland regions (Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi) was esp prized for knowledge on the land

  • King Leopold II employed HMS  to establish a colony (Congo Free State) in Congo.

  • Set up Congo as a free-trade zone accessible to all Euros to stall potential competition

  • Set up Rubber plantations w/ high taxes, abuses (cutting off of limbs), deaths, and workrates

  • GOV took control in 1908 (CFS -> Belgian Congo)

• UK took control of Egypt

  • Muhammad Ali + Egypt rulers took Euro loans to fight off Otto and set up army + eco

  • Led to high debts so they raise taxes 1870s which led to unrest and rebellion, causing UK to occupy egypt in 1882 to protect UK loans and the Suez Canal

• Euro was in Africa long ago, w/ Dutch East India Company settled in Cape Town (1652) to supply ships passing to Asia

  • Settlers + Company settle move in land to farm and raise livestock

  • Boers believed that it was god’s will for them to claim the resources of Cape Town

  • Cape Town lands expand during 18th cent with migrants (mainly Dutch, German and French Protest. fleeing religious persecution) and began to encroach on lands belong to Khoikhoi and Xhosa people leading to conflict

  • Early 18th cent: War, smallpox disease and slavery led to extinction of Khoikhoi people

  • 19th cent: Xhosa people extinct as well

• British occupies Cape Town bc Napoleonic Wars, causing Boers to push into S Africa

  • UK rule of Cape town lead disrupted Afrikan life through English laws + societies and ban of slavery

  • Ban of slavery by UK in 1833 eliminated main source of labor for Boer farmers, causing them to move north into the Great Trek leading to conflicts with Natives

    • Dutch Voortrekkers (Pioneers) were able to overpower Ndebele and Zulu using firearms, which was viewed as god giving them approval

  • UK annexes multiple different republics for boers

    • Republic of Natal: 1843

    • Orange Free State: 1854

    • South African Republic (Transvaal Territories: 1860

  • UK and Boers live in peace, until discovery of diamond and gold mines in Boer lands (1867+1886) leading to influxes of english migration

  • Land tensions boiled over to the Boer wars/South African War (1899-1902), leading to the death of many white, but hit the Native Africans the most

    • 100k Native POWs in UK intern camps led to 10k dying

  • After Boer surrender in 1902, UK organize the four territories together into Union of South Africa, an autonomous UK dominion

  • UK tries to improve relationships between Boers + English through providing privilege to whites and keeping Native Africans subservient

• Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-1885): In an attempt to keep tensions between States under control, 12 Euro states + US + Otto cam together to decide on the divide of Africa

  • No Africans present

  • Half nations (include US) didn’t have colonial interest, but still there to facilitate an unbiased international approval

  • Led to the agreement that for state to get colony, they must inform others of claim + actually be occupied it (effective occupation) through signed agreement from local rulers or conquest

  • Set noble objectives to end slave trade, bring civilization and Christ, and trade to Africa

• Events such as 20k Sudanese dead in hours at Battle of Omdurman highlights the superiority of Euro military tech, and how they were so effective at imperialism

• Only successful African state to resist imperialism was Ethiopia

  • Italy lands in 1895, and forces killed at Battle of Adwa (1896), leading to Italy stepping away

• Liberia was an independent state because is was used to house freed slaves after the US civil war

• Euro GOVs assumed with some initial investment, colonies would become self-sufficient, but they often needed continuous high investing to maintain power

• Concessionary Companies: Earliest form of colonial rule, involved giving large private companies land, and allowing them to develop industries and build infrastructure

  • Required moderate investment (not a lot)

  • Problem was it led to small profit margins, and brutal coerced labor which led to outcry from public in Euro

  • Led to countries ruling directly or indirectly by early 20th cent (France - D, UK - ID)

• Direct Rule: Using Euro administrators to control all aspects of a colony, and breaking tribal/ethnic groups/lands apart in order to weaken them and replace w/ more compliant rulers. 

  • Main problem was lack of officials

  • E.g 36k Euro trying to rule Pop of 9mill in French West Africa, w/ long distance + bad travel speeds and no comprende the language + customs

• Indirect Rule: Letting the Native population and tribes keep power, and 

  • Popular by British Colonial Officer Frederick D. Lugard in book The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa

  • Worked well in areas with organized gov, but in other areas the UK officials created boundaries and tribal categories due to the diverse and complexity of African culture and societies

Pacific

• First interest in the Pacific started with Cap. John Cook’s trips (1770) when he arrived at Botany Bay (Sydney) in Aussies

• UK ships come in 1788 w/ 1k settlers (most being criminals) to make New South Wales 

  • Lived off herding livestock

  • Migrants pop > Criminals by 1830s

  • Gold discovery in 1851 brought more interests

  • Interest in New Zealand established due to rich timber and fertile soil

  • Spread disease and killed Natives while Euro populations climbed

    • Native Aussies (650k -> 90k, 1800-1900)

    • Maori (200k -> 45k, 1800-1900)

  • Led to tensions and military conquests for Aussie land by UK and justified by saying terra nullius (Land belonging to no one) as Natives did not settle down permanently

    • Took most lands by 1900

  • NZ similar, but was in Treaty of Waitangi, which promised UK protection to Maori chiefs, but actually open door for colonization and hatred among Maori

    • Led to NZ wars in which Maori try to win back their lands against Uk settlers and soldiers, esp after UK kept trying to take more land (mid-late 19th cent)

    • Kingitanga: 1856, a movement which united many Maori to move towards independence, although the Uk actually pushed them out of nearby UK lands by start of 20th cent

• Outside of Aussie and NZ, people typically were not colonized and just suffered from disease

  • Euro to these islands were mostly whalers (seeking ports to dock and resupply + relax), merchants (looking for exotic goods like sandalwood and sea slugs to sell to China) and missionaries (setting up churches)

  • Some navel showing of force to natives or Euro, but most of 19th cent, imp did not colonize

• Changed in late 19th cent, alongside Scramble for Africa, leading to Euro forming colonies for supply ports and dock ships in Pacific

  • Went along with Berlin Conference, with FRA, UK, GER, and US dividing most of Oceania up

  • France: Tahiti, Society Islands, Marquesasas (protectorate in 1841, directly rule in 1880) New Caledonia (1853)

  • UK: Fiji (1874)

  • GER: Most of Marshall Islands (1876 + 1878)

  • Only not colonized land was Kingdom of Tonga, but even they accept UK protection vs other Imp powers

• Pacific Islands provided raw goods and materials

  • Hawaii + Fiji: Sugar plantations

  • Samona, French Polynesia, Melanesian, Micronesia: Copra (dried coconut, used for oil in soap, candles, and lubricants)

  • New Caledonia: Nickel

  • Others: Guano (bird poop = good fertilizer)

US in Latin America

• Monroe Doctrine: Passed in 1823 by Pres. James Morone which declared US a protectorate of Americas, and said no Imperialization in Americas

  • Was initially used to protect free trade in area for US and Euro

• US started to become interested in new lands once it started pushing west

  • Alaska: 1867 from RUS

  • Hawaii: Protectorate in 1875, annex in 1893 w/ overthrow of last queen Liliuokalani

  • Some pres like Grover Cleaveland opposed annexation, but others like William Mckinley were more open

• Spanish-Cuban-American War

  • US battleship Maine explodes in Havana, Cuba and US says SPA was responsible and declares war

  • Wins easily, and takes control of Cuba, Puerto Rico and later Manila, Guam, Philippine in the Pacific to protect them vs GER and JAP, and establish colonial GOVs

• US started intervening in conflicts outside its colonial lands to protect its eco interests

  • Cuba, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, Haiti (early 20th cent)

• US promised independence to Phili if they helped fight the Spanish, but later colonized them and paid 20 milli to SPA, since it was near South China Sea (important for eco and was deemed important by Mili) (William Mckinley)

• Emilio Aguinaldo (Phili George Washington figure) led his people vs US that lasted until 1902, with some occasional fighting until 1906.

  • 4.2k US soldier dead

  • 15k rebels dead

  • 200k civil dead

• Panama Canal: Canal build to connect Pacific and Atlantic Ocean, and engineers said Panama was the best spot

  • Colombia owned land, and did not want to give it, so Teddy fund rebel forces (1903) to break off Panama land in exchange for land around Canal (Panama Canal Zone)

  • Roosevelt Corollary (1904): Added by Teddy to justify his actions in Colombia, said that US will intervene in Americas if they do not have security to protect US investments

  • PA and RC fueled US Mili + Eco strength by 1914 

Japanese Imperialism

• Started in 1870s with Hokkaido and Kurile Islands in North, and GOV encourage migration so RUS can’t expand to land

• 1879: Okinawa and Ryukyu in South

• 1876: Using Warship brought from UK, JAP use navy to force KOR into unequal treaties

• 1880s-1890s: Meiji JAP plan to expand internationally like Euro and US, planning to invade China and prepare navy 

• Sino-Japanese War: Started when Qing army was sent out to put down rebellion in Korea in 1893 and restore order + authority, which JAP did not like since it had economic interest there since treaties in 1876. 

  • Led to JAP declaring war (Aug 1894) and beating CHN fleet in 5 hours in Yellow Sea.

  • JAP push Qing out of Korea

  • War end in a few months

  • April 1895, Qing gives Korea independence which makes it subservient JAP

  • Qing gives up Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula

  • Qing signs unequal treaties with JAP, like with other Euro countries 

• JAP victories startles Euro powers (esp RUS) and led to increased tensions between JAP and RUS over control of land such as the Liaodong Peninsula.

• Late 1890s: JAP leaders improve Naval power in preparation for potential war with RUS

• Russo-Japanese War: Started 1904, and JAP overran RUS forces before reinforce could arrive from Euro, and Navy crushed the RUS Baltic ships.

  • 1905: JAP wins, and gets international recognition over its territories in Korea and Liaodong.

  • RUS gives up Sakhalin islands to JAP, and railways + eco interests in south Manchuria. 

Demand + Migration

• Imperialism focused on extraction of raw resources, which led colonial officials to structure subjects around maximizing the production of them.

  • UK changing Indian (5000 BCE) practices of producing cotton and weaving by land for domestic use to exporting raw cotton.

  • UK built railroads all along India to ship cotton fast and quick before weather conditions spoiled cotton

  • UK imported cheap textiles made from machinery, which undermined and outcompeted local textiles artisans

  • UK transformed India from Cotton producer, to textile consumer

    • 10 M -> 60 M -> 410 M rupees of cotton exported (1849, 1860, 1913)

    • 50k -> 5.2M -> 30M rupees of imported textiles (1814, 1829, 1890)

• Desire for profit and raw resources created environmental change + damage (APES)

  • UK brought tea bushes to grow in India and Ceylon

  • Cut down rainforest to make room for tea in Ceylon (APES)

  • Thousands of women worked on plantations (labor-intensive)

  • Tea was consumed very little domestically, with most being exported.

  • 309k -> 4.4 M -> 6.1 M of pound sterling tea exports from S Asia (1866, 1888, 1900)

  • Malaya and Sumatra: Same as Ceylon, but with rubber trees in 1870s

• Led to an increase in global trade of raw materials in 19th and 20th cent, but prosperity was mainly felt by Imperialist

• Imperialism caused migration, with Euro mostly moving to temperate areas (APES) to work as free laborers, while migrants from imperialized areas (Asia, Africa, Pacific) mostly moved to subtropical and tropical areas to work as indentured laborers. 

  • Euro = Cultivators, Factory workers

  • Others = Plantation, Mining, large-scale construction

• 1800-1914: 50 M Euro migrated for opportunities, mainly from poor agrarian societies of E and S Euro (mainly ITA, RUS, POL w/ some UK, IRE, GER, Scandinavia)

  • Most (32 M) move to the US for cheap land (Oregon trail?) to farm, but later most settled in the NE and help provide labor for industrialization there (after 1860s)

  • Others went around the world (CAN, ARG, Aussies, NZ, SAF) and become mostly farmers + herds, but some skilled labors in mines or developing industries

  • All settled in temperate areas bc imperialism giving them to best lands

• Others were recruited as indentured servants from poor and crowded communities to fuel the void left by the ban of slavery

  • 1820-1914: 2.5 M left homes to work in distant lands

  • Recruiters offered free passage, food, shelter, clothing and money for 5-7 years of service, w/ some offering a free trip hope after 2 tours

  • Most from IND, but some from CHN, JAP, Java, Africa, and Pacific who went mainly to Americas, Caribbean, Africa and Oceania (All sub-trop, or tropical)

• Indentured Servant trade begin 1820s w/ UK and France shipping IND to work on plantations in other colonies (Reunion and Mauritius: Sugar plantations)

  • Malaya: Rubber

  • SAF: Sugar

  • Fiji, Guianas, Caribbean islands of Trinidad, Tobago, Jamaica

• After Opium Wars, UK takes CHN and move them to work in other colonies

  • Cuba and Hawaii: Sugar

  • Peru: Guano mines

  • Malaya: Tin

  • South Africa + Aussies: Gold

  • US, CAN, Peru: Railway tracks

• After Meiji, large num of migrants went to Hawaii sugar plantations, with some small amount going to Peru Guano mines

• Africans mostly went to sugar plantations in Reunion, the Guianas, and Caribbean

• Pacific islanders mostly went to plantations on other pacific islands and Aussies

• Mass global migration only possible since Euro + US created societies in temperate areas, and colonization + imperialism created demand for labor (indentured servants), leading to cultural diffusion and diaspora societies

Resistance and Racism

• New policies forced up societies led to tensions which eventually boiled over to violence

• Although India Sepoy rebellion was the largest one, there were several more rebellions in Asia throughout 19th to 20th cent against:

  • Foreign rule

  • Tyranny of colonial officers

  • European schools and curricula

  • High taxation

  • Compsolury labor and farming certain crops

• Many resistance movements involved religious tradition, guided by religious keaders

  • Maji Maji Rebellion (Magic Water): Rebellion in Tanganyika (1905-1906) in which rebels used magic water which they believed would protect against GER weapons, leading to death of 75k max rebels

• Even when not in revolt, Natives use other methods to resist

  • Boycotting Euro goods

  • Organize political parties

  • Pressure groups

  • Anti-colonial press

  • Anti-colonial policies in religion and churches

• Mass migration led individuals of diverse cultural and ethnic background to meet together, sometimes leading to tensions

  • Hawaii had CHN, JAP, POR, PHI, KOR, IND and Pacific

  • Led to cultural diffusion, and individuals adopting foods and taking spouses from different cultures

  • Language, religion and culture differences created distinct difference between groups, and set basis for ethnic identities

• Imperialism also saw the rise of scientific racism in Euro which categorized individuals based on their physical appearances (e.g skin color, bone structure, nose shape, etc), with Euro being the superior race

  • Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (FRA): Said race was primarily index of human potential, and there was no pure biological race, but distinct types of human species in racial groups

    • Africans: Stupid + Lazy

    • Asians: Smart but docile

    • Americas: Dull and Arrogant

    • Euro: Sophisticated and civilized

• After 1860s, Racists begin using Darwin’s theory of evolution (The Origin of Species (1859))to create Social Darwinism by applying it to human societies

  • English Philosopher Herbet Spencer: Used Darwin’s theory and said that some successful races were able to create better societies than other races, thus outcompeting them, and used it to justify imperialism as part of natural scientific processes

• However, Racism was common in colonial lands, as officials saw themselves superior to the Native populations

  • [British Military Officer] Colonel Francis Younghusband in 1896 said that Asians are physical and intellectual equal to Euro, but Euro are more morally superior 

• US and JAP also developed similar racist sentiments

  • US saw the PHI rebels as gooks (racist term)

  • US saw the conflict as a way to civilize and christianize PHI, although ironically using torture on POWs

  • JAP starting in 1890s starting to see CHIN and KOR as beneath them (esp in newspapers) 

  • Some scholar even saying the JAP were more similar to the Aryan people of Eurasia, than Mongols in CHN and KOR

  • After war w/ RUS, JAP begin increasing seeing it was their obligation to civilize their asian brother

Nationalism + Anti-Colonialism

• Imperialism and colonialism led to groups of individuals uniting under a national identity to resist against imperialist, similar to Euro during Napoleonic wars

• [Bengali Intellectual] Ram Mohan Roy: Father of modern India, which argued that India should modernize by following Euro science while keeping Indian tradition

  • Women's rights through banning of Sati (women jumps on burning husband’s corpse)

  • Use Christ reformers to provide education + property rights

  • Saw self as a Hindu reformer, and used sacred Hindu scriptures like Vedas and Upanishads to solve problems of his time

  • Later on in life, published papers and founded societies to educate Hindus and move towards reform in colonial India

  • Reform societies increased in 19th cent, mainly of educated upper-caste elites (mainly Hindu, with some Muslims) with very little of the lower-caste (peasants, landlords, etc) which began demanding more representation in India or Self-governance

    • Leaders of movement took inspiration from enlightenment ideals during their time studying in UK Unis

    • Used enlightenment ideals to argue for change

• Indian National Congress: 

  • Most important reform group; founded in 1885 with UK approval

  • Used for educated Indians to express concerns to Colonial officers included

    • Poverty

    • Export of wealth (trade deficit)

    • Tariffs and trade that hurt domestic industries

    • Inability to address famines or doughnuts by officials

    • Racism

  • Began seeking independence by the end of 19th cent, and joined forces with All-India Muslim League in 1916 (Muslims are about 25% of population)

  • Colonial officials allowed wealthy indians to vote on local leaders in 1908, but was unable to suppress the growing drive for independence in India

• Increasing demand for independence lead to increasing nationalist zeal

  • Gathering support from public

  • Boycott of Euro goods

  • Terrorism, and bombing colonial buildings and killing British officials

  • Led to independence in 1947

• Indian independence served as inspiration for further independence in the world, but often Euro-educated Native elites used enlightenment ideals to attack colonial rule and start independence