Logic - coming from greek word logos, the study or formal reasoning. Trying to differentiate between right and wrong or true and false through correct reasoning. Exposing faulty arguments and examining assumptions. There are two forms of reasoning logic can take, deductive or inductive

Deduction - involves drawing a specific conclusion from a general statement from big to small picture. Ex. all birds have a beaks, so if I am a bird i must have a beak

Induction - involves drawing a general conclusion from a specific statement/premise. Small picture to big picture. Ex. this bird has a beak so all birds must have beaks

Aristotle on logic - discussed tools of logic in his work Organon. He was the first to suggest that logic should not be treated as a unique discipline but it should be applied in every branch of logic. He developed the three laws of thought

Aristotle’s three laws of thought - 1⟹ law of noncontradiction, something cannot exist and not exist at the same time.  Law of excluded middle⟹ something must either be or not be, there’s no other option.  Law of identity⟹ something is what it is it cannot be something else

Kurt godel on logic and math - showed that some mathematical concepts cannot be proven, even if the correct rules/principles are applied. Therefore math is not a complete or finished discipline

An argument - groups of statement with premise(s) designed to justify a conclusion

Premise - factual statement or proposition

Conclusion - statement that follow premise(s)

Logical consistency - in an argument, statements that don’t contradict each other

Logical contradiction - statements that contradict each other

Abductive reasoning - seeking the simplest and most likely conclusion from observations/premises. The “best guess”

Truth VS validity - truth is the actual truth and correctness of the statement, validity is if you’re using correct reasoning/structure. If the statements are truth and the reasoning is valid, the argument is sound.

Syllogisms (general) - a formal argument consisting of a major and minor premise and a conclusion

Categorical syllogism - syllogism that states if objects belong/don’t belong in a category by going from a general premise to specific conclusion. Includes a major and minor premise, middle term, predicate term, and subject. 

Disjunctive syllogism - syllogism involving choice using an either or statement. In the premise, one alternative is denied and the conclusion reaffirms the other. 

Hypothetical syllogism - syllogism expressing a hypothesis always using the word if. Hypothesis followed by statement then conclusion. Automatically considered correct if it is built correctly. 

Fuzzy logic - logic that operates in “shades” of truth or falseness as opposed to absolute truth

Boolean logic - opposite of fuzzy logic, results are absolute truth or falseness

Argument by analogy - type of inductive reasoning proposing similarities between items because of other similarities

False or weak analogy - type of fallacy questioning relevance, is there enough information to establish this connection?

Ockham’s razor - if you have two competing options you should choose the simpler one as it is usually the right choice (abductive reasoning). Favours the simplest solution using the fewest possible entities to solve the problem. 

Fallacy (general) - flaw or fault in an argument. Trying to persuade without proper grounds for the conclusion. 

Formal fallacy - structural error in deductive logic

Informal fallacy - argument that persudaes by means other than reason. Three main categories all with many subcategories. Relevance, ambiguity, and presumption

Ad Hominem fallacy - fallacy of relevance. Attacking the source of the argument often an attack against the preson

hasty generalization fallacy - fallacy of presumption. Tries to draw a broad generalization out of a specific case

Equivocation fallacy - fallacy of ambiguity. Using an ambiguous word in two or more ways in the same argument

Big questions of philosophy and science - is science truly objective? Can scientific theories be proven. Can science alone tell us what the world is truly like?

Science first order questions - how does it work?

Philosophy second order questions - why does it work?can we know the reason? Is it morally right?

Pre-socratic science of philosophy - trying to explain the nature the universe. To materialists, everything is made up of matter, even thoughts. Atomists believed there were bits of matter so small they’re invisible to the naked eye. 

Aristotle and the philosophy of science - first true philosopher of science. Collected specimens, observed, recorded, and classified them. Influenced christian and muslim thinkers. 

Ptolemy - proposed way of thinking accepted until the late renaissance. In the geocentric solar system, earth is at the center. Fit with christian teaching about god and creation

NOMA - non overlapping magisteria; principle that says science and religion are two distinct fields of study.richard dawkins argues that these fields cannot be separate this division is caused by the religious belief in “miracles” which directly opposes science. Created by stefan jay gould. Richard dawkins criticized noma. 

Paradigm shift - a paradigm is a way of thinking, a certain worldview. A paradigm shift occurs when a certain way of thinking or belief is discredited. Once you move to this new paradigm, you find the other stupid

Hume and causation - david hume dismissed our standard accounts of casualty and that our preceptions of cause and effect are grounded in habits of thinking. He created the term circular thinking to describe using induction to explain induction

Aristotle (logic) - greek philosopher who first suggested that logic should not be treated as a unique discipline but it should be applied in every branch of logic. First true philosopher of science. He developed his three laws of thought

Francis Bacon (logic) - developed the scientific method after the focus of logic switched inductive reasoning. 

Kurt Godel  (logic) - philosopher who showed that some mathematical concepts cannot be proven, even if the correct rules/principles are applied. Therefore math is not a complete or finished discipline. 

Charles Sanders Pierce (logic) - coined abductive reasoning, a type of inductive reasoning. 

Copernicus (logic) - came up with the heliocentric universe theory, later supported by Galileo and Kepler

Charles Darwin (logic) - questioned god, leading to the conflict between science and religion. Applied inductive reasoning to create his theory of natural selection. Demonstrated the significant scientific conclusions that come from collecting empirical evidence. 

Thomas Kuhn (logic) - coined the term paradigm shift. Said that normal science is puzzle solving. Scientists operate within a paradigm they have been trained in. they push boundaries but never question the paradigm. Science is a lens with which we view the world and isn’t more valid than other types of knowledge. 

David hume (logic) - david hume dismissed our standard accounts of casualty and that our preceptions of cause and effect are grounded in habits of thinking. He created the term circular thinking to describe using induction to explain induction