What is the study of Cognitive Neuroscience?; The study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a focus on the neural connections in the brain. What does Cognitive Neuroscience focus on?; The neural connections in the brain that underlie cognition. What are the main areas of interest in Cognitive Neuroscience?; Understanding how the brain enables the mind. What does Cognitive Neuroscience seek to understand?; The relationship between the brain and cognitive functions such as perception, memory, language, and decision-making. What are some examples of cognitive functions studied in Cognitive Neuroscience?; Perception, memory, language, and decision-making. What is the field of study that links the brain and other aspects of the nervous system to cognitive processing and behavior?; Neuroscience. What directly controls our thoughts, emotions, and motivations?; The brain. What does localization of function refer to?; Specific areas of the brain that control specific skills or behaviors. How many organ systems are there in the body?; Ten, including the nervous system. What is the main function of the nervous system?; Receiving, processing, and responding to information from the environment. What are the three main functions of the nervous system?; Receiving, processing, and responding to information. Which system is responsible for information processing in the body?; The nervous system. What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of?; Spinal cord and brain. What are the components of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?; Nerves. What are the two divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?; Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System. What does the somatic nervous system consist of?; Nerves that convey messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles and glands. What does the autonomic nervous system do?; Receives information from and sends commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs. Which organs does the autonomic nervous system send commands to?; Heart, intestines, and other organs. What is the function of the Sympathetic Nervous System?; Preparing the body's organs for vigorous activity. What are the effects of the Sympathetic Nervous System on breathing and heart rate?; Increased breathing and heart rate. How does the Parasympathetic Nervous System affect the body's organs?; Facilitating vegetative, nonemergency responses. What is the main function of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?; Promoting general energy-conserving, nonemergency functions. What are the effects of the Parasympathetic Nervous System on heart rate and digestive activity?; Decrease in heart rate and increase in digestive activity. What is the main organ of the central nervous system?; The brain. What are the three main parts of the brain?; The cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary movement and cognitive functions?; The cerebrum. Which part of the brain is responsible for coordination and balance?; The cerebellum. What is the function of the brainstem?; It controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate. What are the four lobes of the cerebrum?; Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. Which lobe of the cerebrum is responsible for processing visual information?; Occipital lobe. Which lobe of the cerebrum is responsible for processing sensory information?; Parietal lobe. What is the function of the frontal lobe?; It is responsible for decision making, problem solving, and voluntary movement. What is the largest part of the human brain?; The cerebrum. What is the field concerned with the identification and description of body structures of living things?; Anatomy. Where is the forebrain located in the brain?; Toward the top and front of the brain. What is the cerebral cortex?; The outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres. What role does the cerebral cortex play?; It plays a vital role in our thinking and other mental processes. What is the function of the Basal Ganglia?; Collections of neurons crucial to motor function. What motor deficits can result from dysfunction of the Basal Ganglia?; Tremors, involuntary movements, changes in posture and muscle tone, and slowness of movement. In which diseases are deficits observed due to dysfunction of the Basal Ganglia?; Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. What are the severe motor symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease?; Tremors, involuntary movements, changes in posture and muscle tone, and slowness of movement. What functions is the limbic system involved in?; Learning, emotions, motivation, memory, and learning. How does the limbic system help us adapt our behaviors?; By allowing flexibility in response to our changing environment. What ability does the limbic system provide in relation to instinctive responses?; It allows us to suppress instinctive responses. What role does the hippocampus play in the brain?; It plays an important role in memory formation. What is the hippocampus essential for?; Flexible learning, seeing relations among items learned, and spatial memory. What does the hippocampus keep track of?; Where things are and how they are spatially related to each other. What happens to people who have suffered damage to or removal of the hippocampus?; They can recall existing memories but are unable to form new memories (anterograde amnesia). What are the symptoms of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?; Apathy, paralysis of eye muscles, tremor, balance and movement issues, confusion, and eye problems. What causes Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?; Deteriorated hippocampus due to lack of Vitamin B-1 in the brain, excessive alcohol use, dietary deficiencies, or eating disorders. What are the balance and movement issues associated with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?; Slow and unsteady walk, wide stance, short steps, weakness in arms and legs. What are the symptoms of confusion in Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?; Feeling out of it and losing interest in surroundings. What eye problems can occur in Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?; Double vision and rapid eye movements. What role does the amygdala play in emotion?; It plays an important role in emotion, especially in anger and aggression. What is the key role of the amygdala?; It is shown to play a key role in the processing of emotions. What can result from damage to or removal of the amygdala?; Maladaptive lack of fear. What is the role of the septum?; It is involved in anger and fear. What is the function of the thalamus?; Relays incoming sensory information through groups of neurons that project to the appropriate region in the cortex. How is the thalamus divided to accommodate different types of information?; It is divided into a number of nuclei (groups of neurons of similar function) which receive information from specific senses. What is the role of the thalamus in the control of sleep and waking?; It helps in the control of sleep and waking. What are the potential results of thalamus malfunction?; Pain, tremor, amnesia, impairment of language, and disruptions in waking and sleeping. What functions does the hypothalamus regulate?; Behavior related to species survival, emotions, reactions to stress, and sleep. What conditions are associated with dysfunction and neural loss within the hypothalamus?; Narcolepsy. What is the role of the hypothalamus in relation to the pituitary glands?; It stimulates the pituitary glands to produce and release a range of hormones. What functions does the midbrain help to control?; Eye movement and coordination. What does RAS stand for?; Reticular Activating System. What is the function of the Reticular Activating System?; Regulation of consciousness, sleep, wakefulness, arousal, attention, heartbeat, and breathing. What vital functions does the RAS regulate?; Heartbeat and breathing. Where does the RAS extend to?; The hindbrain. What is the function of the brainstem?; It connects the forebrain to the spinal cord. What are the components of the brainstem?; Hypothalamus, thalamus, midbrain, and hindbrain. Where is the periaqueductal gray (PAG) found?; In the brainstem. What is the role of the periaqueductal gray (PAG) in the brainstem?; It is essential for certain kinds of adaptive behaviors. How do physicians determine brain death?; Based on the function of the brainstem. What is the oldest part of the brain?; The brainstem. What functions does the Medulla Oblongata control?; Heart activity, breathing, swallowing, and digestion. Where do nerves from the right side of the body cross over to the left side of the brain?; At the medulla oblongata. Where do nerves from the left side of the body cross over to the right side of the brain?; At the medulla oblongata. What is the function of the Pons in the brain?; It serves as a relay station for neural signals from one part of the brain to another. Why is the Pons named as such?; Its name derives from the Latin for 'bridge' as it serves a bridging function. What does the Cerebellum control?; Bodily coordination, balance, muscle tone, and some aspects of memory involving procedure-related movements. What is the literal translation of Cerebellum from Latin?; Little brain. What is the main function of the cerebral cortex?; It is responsible for higher thought processes including speech and decision making. What is the term used to describe the process of different areas of the cerebral cortex being responsible for different functions?; Localization of functions. Which part of the brain is associated with the localization of functions?; Cerebral cortex. What are some examples of functions localized in the cerebral cortex?; Speech, decision making, and sensory processing. What role does the brain play in human cognition?; It plays an important role. What are sulci in the brain?; Small grooves. Define fissures in the brain.; Large grooves. What are gyri in the brain?; Bulges between adjacent sulci or fissures. What gives the cerebral cortex a grayish appearance?; The neural-cell bodies that primarily comprise it. What is the primary function of the neural-cell bodies in the cerebral cortex?; Processing the information that the brain receives and sends. What does the underlying white matter of the brain's interior primarily comprise?; Mostly white, myelinated axons. What does 'contralateral' mean?; Information transmission from one side to another. What does 'ipsilateral' refer to?; Transmission on the same side. What is the Corpus Callosum?; A dense aggregate of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. What is the function of the Corpus Callosum?; It allows transmission of information back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres. Why is the integration of the two hemispheres important?; Most functioning, including language, depends in large part on the integration of the two hemispheres of the brain. What is the left hemisphere responsible for?; Language and movement. What is the right hemisphere responsible for?; Spatial visualization, orientation, and dominant in comprehension. What is the dominant function of the right hemisphere?; Identification of one’s own face. How does the left hemisphere tend to process information?; Analytically. How does the right hemisphere tend to process information?; Holistically. Do the two hemispheres function independently?; Yes, but they serve complementary roles. Who claimed that an autopsy revealed a lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere of the brain in an aphasic stroke patient?; Paul Broca. What did Paul Broca believe about the left hemisphere of the brain?; He believed it is critical in speech. What view about the left hemisphere of the brain has held up over time?; The view that it is critical in speech. Who is the German neurologist known for studying language-deficient patients?; Carl Wernicke. What did Carl Wernicke study in language-deficient patients?; Patients who could speak but their speech made no sense. What is the precise location studied by Carl Wernicke, now known as Wernicke's area?; A location that contributes to language comprehension. What functions are associated with the frontal lobe?; Motor processing, abstract reasoning, problem solving, planning, judgement, production of speech, and complex motor control. What is the prefrontal cortex involved in?; Complex motor control and tasks that require integration of information over time. When is the frontal lobe involved?; When sequences of thoughts or actions are called for. What is the Parietal Lobe associated with?; Somatosensory processing. What inputs does the Parietal Lobe receive from neurons?; Touch, pain, temperature sense, and limb position. What functions is the Parietal Lobe involved in?; Consciousness and paying attention. What does the Parietal Lobe process when perceiving space and relationship to it?; Inputs regarding touch, pain, temperature sense, and limb position. Where is the temporal lobe located?; Directly under the temples. What functions are associated with the temporal lobe?; Auditory processing, comprehending language, and retention of visual memories. What is the function of the occipital lobe?; Visual processing. What are projection areas in the lobes?; Areas where sensory processing occurs, and nerves contain sensory information going to the thalamus. What does the Primary Motor Cortex specialize in?; The planning, control, and execution of movement, particularly of movement involving any kind of delayed response. What type of information does the Primary Somatosensory Cortex receive from the senses?; Information about pressure, texture, temperature, and pain. Where is the visual cortex primarily located?; In the occipital lobe. What is the basic functional unit of the nervous system?; Neuron. What are the three main parts of a neuron?; Dendrites, cell body, and axon. What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?; To receive signals from other neurons. What is the function of the axon in a neuron?; To transmit signals to other neurons. What is the role of the myelin sheath?; To insulate and speed up the transmission of nerve impulses. What is the space between two neurons called?; Synapse. What is the function of neurotransmitters?; To transmit signals across the synapse to another neuron. What is the function of neurons?; To transmit electrical signals from one location to another in the nervous system. What is the function of the soma in a neuron?; It contains the nucleus of the cell and is responsible for the life of the neuron. It connects the dendrites to the axon. What are dendrites in a neuron responsible for?; Receiving information from other neurons. What is the role of the soma in integrating information?; The soma integrates the information received by the dendrites. What is learning associated with in terms of neuronal connections?; The formation of new neuronal connections. What is an axon?; A long, thin tube that extends from the soma and transmits electrochemical signals. Where does the electrochemical signal travel to in the axon?; To the terminus, where it can be transmitted to other neurons. What are the two kinds of axons?; Myelinated axons and unmyelinated axons. What surrounds myelinated axons?; Myelin sheath, a fatty white substance. How does the myelin sheath affect the conduction of information?; It speeds up the conduction of information. What are the characteristics of unmyelinated axons?; They are shorter, smaller, and slower. Where are terminal buttons located?; At the ends of the branches of an axon. What is the synapse?; A small gap between the terminal buttons of one or more neurons and the dendrites of the next neuron. How does signal transmission between neurons occur?; When the terminal buttons release neurotransmitters at the synapse. What are neurotransmitters?; Chemical messengers for transmission of information across the synaptic gap to the receiving dendrites of the next neuron. What do EEGs record?; Electrical frequencies and intensities of the living brain. What can be studied through EEGs?; Brainwave activity indicative of changing mental states such as deep sleep or dreaming. What does EEG stand for?; Electroencephalograms. What type of brain activity can EEGs indicate?; Deep sleep or dreaming. What does CT stand for in computed tomography?; Computed Tomography. How is a CT scan of the brain created?; By taking several X-ray images from different vantage points and combining them to result in a three-dimensional image. What is the purpose of combining X-ray images from different vantage points in CT?; To create a three-dimensional image of the brain. What is the purpose of angiography?; To examine the blood flow. What does angiography focus on in the brain?; Blood flow, not structures. What does MRI stand for?; Magnetic Resonance Imaging. How does MRI reveal images of the living brain?; By computing and analyzing magnetic changes in the energy of the orbits of nuclear particles in the molecules of the body. What do structural MRIs provide images of?; The brain's size and shape. What do functional MRIs (fMRIs) visualize?; The parts of the brain that are activated when a person is engaged in a particular task. What does PET stand for in the context of medical imaging?; Positron emission tomography. What does PET scans measure in active brain areas?; Increases in oxygen consumption. When are PET scans used to measure brain activity?; During particular kinds of information processing. What are brain disorders?; Conditions that affect the brain's structure or function. Name a common brain disorder.; Alzheimer's disease. What is the impact of brain disorders?; They can affect cognition, behavior, and emotions. What are some symptoms of brain disorders?; Memory loss, confusion, mood changes, and impaired motor function. How are brain disorders diagnosed?; Through a combination of medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. What is a vascular disorder?; A brain disorder caused by a stroke. What happens when strokes occur?; The flow of blood to the brain undergoes a sudden disruption. What are brain tumors also called?; Neoplasms. How can brain tumors affect cognitive functioning?; In very serious ways. How many types of brain tumors are there?; Two. What are the two types of brain tumors?; Benign and Malignant. What are some causes of head injuries?; Car accidents, contact with a hard object, or a bullet wound.