What does cognitive psychology study?; How people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. Why do objects look farther away on foggy days than they really are?; Due to the way light is scattered by the fog, making objects appear more distant. Why do many people remember a particular experience but forget the names of people they have known for many years?; Due to the emotional significance and personal relevance of the experience compared to the names of people. Why are many people more afraid of traveling in planes than in automobiles?; Despite higher chances of death in automobiles, the fear is influenced by factors like lack of control, media portrayal, and perceived catastrophic outcomes in plane crashes. What is the dialectic process?; A developmental process where ideas evolve over time through a pattern of transformation. What does the thesis represent in the dialectic process?; A statement of belief. What does the antithesis represent in the dialectic process?; A statement that counters the previous statement of belief. What does the synthesis do in the dialectic process?; It integrates the viewpoints. According to Plato, what is the route to knowledge?; Thinking and logical analysis. What does a rationalist not need to develop new knowledge?; Experiments. What would a rationalist interested in cognitive processes appeal to as a source of knowledge?; Reason. According to Aristotle, how do we acquire knowledge?; Via empirical evidence, through experience and observation. Who believed in acquiring knowledge through thinking and logical analysis?; Plato. Who believed in acquiring knowledge through empirical evidence?; Aristotle. What does Philosophy seek to understand?; The general nature of many aspects of the world. How does Philosophy examine inner ideas and experiences?; Through introspection, the examination of inner ideas and experiences. What is the etymology of the word 'introspection'?; From 'intro-' meaning 'inward, within' and '-spect' meaning 'look'. What does Physiology seek to study?; Life-sustaining functions in living matter. How does Physiology primarily study life-sustaining functions?; Primarily through empirical (observation-based) methods. What is the basis for the theory of development in cognitive psychology?; Both rationalism and empiricism working together in the quest for truth. What does rationalism believe is the route to knowledge?; Through thinking and logical analysis. What does empiricism believe is the route to knowledge?; Via empirical evidence obtained through experience and observation. What is the basis for gathering data in cognitive psychology?; Empiricism. Who are the philosophers associated with rationalism and empiricism?; Plato and Aristotle. What are the psychological antecedents of cognitive psychology?; Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology. Which psychological theories laid the foundation for cognitive psychology?; Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology. What is the relationship between behaviorism and cognitive psychology?; Behaviorism influenced the development of cognitive psychology. How did Gestalt psychology contribute to the emergence of cognitive psychology?; It emphasized the study of perception and problem-solving, which influenced cognitive psychology. What does structuralism seek to understand?; The structure of the mind and its perceptions. How does structuralism analyze perceptions?; By breaking them into constituent components like affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc. Who is the proponent of structuralism?; Wilhelm Wundt. Who is Wilhelm Wundt?; A German psychologist and the founder of Structuralism. What experimental method did Wilhelm Wundt use in research?; Introspection. How is introspection defined?; As a deliberate looking forward at pieces of information passing through consciousness. What is the aim of introspection?; To look at the elementary components of an object or process. What is a criticism of structuralism?; People may not always be able to accurately express what goes through their mind or put it into words. Why may people not always accurately express their thoughts according to the criticism of structuralism?; They may not be able to put the accurate words, or what they say may not be accurate. Who was Edward Titchener?; An American student of Wundt. How is Edward Titchener sometimes viewed?; As the first full-fledged structuralist. Where did Edward Titchener bring structuralism?; To the United States. What did Edward Titchener's experiments rely on?; Solely on the use of introspection. How did Edward Titchener explore psychology?; From the vantage point of the experiencing individual. What is the focus of functionalism?; Understanding what people do and why they do it. What does functionalism focus on in terms of thought processes?; The processes of thought rather than its contents. What is the belief of pragmatists regarding knowledge validation?; They believe that knowledge is validated by its usefulness: What can you do with it? Who was a leader in guiding functionalism toward pragmatism?; William James. What was William James' chief functional contribution to the field of Psychology?; His landmark Principles of Psychology. Who is John Dewey?; An early pragmatist who profoundly influenced contemporary thinking in cognitive psychology. What is John Dewey primarily remembered for?; His pragmatic approach to thinking and schooling. What is associationism?; The examination of how elements of the mind become associated with one another to result in a form of learning. What is contiguity in associationism?; Associating things that tend to occur together at about the same time. Give an example of contiguity in associationism.; Associating things that tend to occur together at about the same time. What is similarity in associationism?; Associating things with similar features or properties. Give an example of similarity in associationism.; Associating things with similar features or properties. What is contrast in associationism?; Associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold, light/dark, day/night. Give an example of contrast in associationism.; Associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold, light/dark, day/night. Who was the first experimenter to apply associationist principles systematically?; Herman Ebbinghaus. What did Herman Ebbinghaus study?; His own mental processes. How did Herman Ebbinghaus study memory and forgetting?; By using nonsense syllables (e.g. zax) through rehearsal. What is rehearsal in the context of memory?; The conscious repetition of material to be learned. What did Herman Ebbinghaus find about repetition and memory associations?; Frequent repetition can fix mental associations more firmly in memory, aiding in learning. What is the pair for WOM?; CEG What is the pair for GOR?; NIF What is the pair for XAR?; MUP What is the pair for JEK?; BAC What is the pair for HOK?; MIB What does the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve show?; The rate at which we forget information over time. What does the first few repetitions result in according to the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve?; A steep learning curve. What happens with later repetitions according to the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve?; They result in a slower increase of remembered words. According to Edward Lee Thorndike, what is the key to forming associations?; Satisfaction (as the stimulus). What principle did Thorndike term as the 'law of effect'?; The principle that a stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if an organism is rewarded for that response. How does a child learn to solve arithmetic problems accurately according to Thorndike?; By forming associations between valid solutions and treats received as rewards. What does behaviorism focus on?; The relation between observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli. How does behaviorism aim to interpret mental processes?; By making them physical and observable. Give an example of behaviorism in action.; A student who is motivated to study because of high grades. What is the main goal of behaviorism?; To understand and explain behavior through observable interactions with the environment. What is the contrast between behaviorism and associationism?; One focuses on gaining satisfaction from learning itself (associationism), while the other is motivated by external rewards such as high grades (behaviorism). Who is considered the proponent of Classical Conditioning?; Ivan Pavlov. What is John B. Watson known as?; The father of radical behaviorism. What is the focus of radical behaviorism?; Concentrating only on the study of observable behavior. Who is known as another radical behaviorist?; Burrhus F. Skinner. What is the focus of operant conditioning?; Involving the strengthening or weakening of behavior, contingent on the presence or absence of reinforcement or punishments. What could operant conditioning explain according to Burrhus F. Skinner?; All forms of human behavior. What complex mental activities did Behaviorism not account for?; Language learning and problem solving. What did some psychologists want to know more about, beyond understanding people's behavior?; What went on inside the head. In what context was it often easier to use the techniques of behaviorism?; Studying nonhuman animals. In what context was it often more challenging to use the techniques of behaviorism?; Studying human ones. How is Edward Tolman sometimes viewed in psychology?; As a father of modern cognitive psychology. What did Tolman believe was necessary to understand behavior?; Taking into account the purpose and plan for the behavior. What was Tolman's emphasis in understanding behavior?; Mental processes. According to Tolman, what is all behavior directed toward?; A goal. Who is noted for the view that learning can result from observations of the rewards or punishments given to others?; Albert Bandura. What theory is Albert Bandura a proponent of?; Social Cognitive Theory. According to Albert Bandura, how do we learn our own behavior?; By observing and modeling the behavior of others. What does Albert Bandura's view emphasize about learning?; It emphasizes how we observe and model our own behavior after the behavior of others. What is the main idea of Gestalt psychology?; We best understand psychological phenomena when we view them as organized, structured wholes. Why does Gestalt psychology emphasize the importance of viewing phenomena as organized wholes?; Because we cannot fully understand behavior when we only break phenomena down into smaller parts. What does Gestalt psychology study?; Both mental processes and behavior. What does the maxim 'The whole is greater than the sum of its parts' represent in Gestalt psychology?; It aptly sums up the Gestalt perspective. What is cognitivism?; The belief that much of human behavior can be understood in terms of how people think. When did the cognitive revolution take place?; In the early 1950s. What was the cognitive revolution a response to?; Behaviorism. What is the early role of psychobiology?; Studying the biological basis of behavior and mental processes. What does psychobiology focus on?; The interaction between biological processes and behavior. What is the main emphasis of psychobiology?; Understanding the relationship between the brain and behavior. Who is Karl Spencer Lashley?; A researcher who considered the brain to be an active, dynamic organizer of behavior. What did Karl Spencer Lashley seek to understand?; How the macro-organization of the human brain made complex, planned activities possible, such as musical performance, game playing, and language use. Who proposed the concept of cell assembles as the basis for learning in the brain?; Donald Hebb. What are cell assembles?; Coordinated neural structures that develop through frequent stimulation. According to Donald Hebb, what is the basis for learning in the brain?; Cell assembles. What did Noam Chomsky stress about language?; He stressed both the biological and creative potential of language. What did Noam Chomsky point out about the number of sentences we can produce?; He pointed out the infinite numbers of sentences we can produce with ease. What notion did Noam Chomsky defy regarding language learning?; He defied the behaviorist notion that we learn language by reinforcement. What is engineering?; The application of scientific and mathematical principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items. What is computation?; The process of performing mathematical calculations using a computer. What is applied cognitive psychology?; The use of psychological principles to solve real-world problems and improve human performance. Who suggested the idea that machine communication would be hard to distinguish from human communication?; Allan Turing. What is the Turing Test?; A test by which a computer program would be judged as successful to the extent that its output was indistinguishable by humans from the output of humans. What is the goal of the Turing Test?; To judge the success of a computer program based on its output being indistinguishable from human output. What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?; An attempt of humans to construct systems that show intelligence and particularly, the intelligent processing of information. Who is Ulric Neisser?; The father of modern cognitive psychology. What did Ulric Neisser define cognitive psychology as?; The study of how people learn, structure, store and use knowledge. What was the significance of Ulric Neisser's book 'Cognitive Psychology'?; It was critical in bringing cognitivism to prominence by informing undergraduates, graduate students, and academics about the newly developing field. Who proposed detailed models of human thinking and problem solving?; Allen Newell and Herbert Simon. What did Allen Newell and Herbert Simon propose models of?; Human thinking and problem solving. At what levels did the models proposed by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon cover?; From the most basic levels to the most complex. Who popularized the concept of the modularity of mind?; Jerry Fodor. What does modularity imply?; That processes used in one domain of processing operate independently of processes in other domains. Give an example of a domain of processing mentioned in the concept of modularity.; Linguistic or perceptual domain. What is cognition?; The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Define intelligence.; The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. What are the components of cognition?; Thought, experience, and the senses. How is intelligence defined?; As the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. What is the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses?; Cognition. What is intelligence?; The capacity to learn from experience and adapt to the surrounding environment. How does intelligence utilize metacognitive processes?; To enhance learning. What does intelligence enable an individual to do?; Adapt to the surrounding environment. What is the three-stratum model of intelligence?; A cognitive model of intelligence proposed by Carroll. Who proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligence?; Howard Gardner. What is the Triarchic Theory of Multiple Intelligence?; A cognitive model of intelligence proposed by Sternberg. How many cognitive models of intelligence are mentioned?; Three. What is the Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence?; A model that comprises a hierarchy of cognitive abilities. What is included in Stratum 1 of the Three-Stratum Model?; Many narrow, specific abilities such as spelling ability and speed of reasoning. What is included in Stratum 2 of the Three-Stratum Model?; Various broad abilities such as fluid intelligence, crystalized intelligence, short-term memory, long-term memory storage and retrieval, and information-processing speed. What is included in Stratum 3 of the Three-Stratum Model?; Just a single general intelligence, sometimes called the g factor. What is the Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence?; A widely accepted measurement-based model of intelligence. What is Fluid Ability in the Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence?; Speed and accuracy of abstract reasoning, especially for novel problems. What is Crystallized Ability in the Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence?; Accumulated knowledge and vocabulary. What processes are included in the Middle Stratum of the Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence?; Learning and memory processes, visual perception, auditory perception, facile production of ideas, and speed. What does the Theory of Multiple Intelligence propose about intelligence?; It comprises multiple independent constructs, not just a single, unitary construct. How does the Theory of Multiple Intelligence view the systems of functioning?; As separate systems that can interact to produce intelligent performance. What is the view of the mind according to the Theory of Multiple Intelligence?; Modular. What is Linguistic Intelligence used for?; Reading a book, writing a paper, a novel, or a poem, and understanding. Give an example of a task that uses Logical-Mathematical Intelligence.; Solving math problems, balancing a checkbook, solving a mathematical proof, and logical reasoning. How is Spatial Intelligence used?; Getting from one place to another, reading maps, and packing suitcases in the trunk of a car to fit into a compact space. What activities involve Musical Intelligence?; Singing a song, composing a sonata, playing a trumpet, or appreciating the structure of a piece of music. What are Gardner's Eight Intelligences?; Bodily Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, and others. What type of tasks are associated with Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence?; Dancing, playing basketball, running a mile, throwing a javelin, etc. What type of tasks are associated with Interpersonal intelligence?; Relating to other people, understanding another person’s behavior, motives, or emotions. What type of tasks are associated with Intrapersonal intelligence?; Understanding ourselves, understanding who we are, what makes us tick, and how we can change ourselves. What type of tasks are associated with Naturalist intelligence?; Understanding patterns in nature. What does the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence emphasize?; The extent to which various aspects of intelligence work together. What are the three aspects of intelligence in the Triarchic Theory?; Creative Abilities, Analytical Abilities, Practical Abilities. How are Creative Abilities utilized in the Triarchic Theory?; To generate novel ideas. What is the role of Analytical Abilities in the Triarchic Theory?; To ascertain whether ideas (your own and others') are good ones. How are Practical Abilities used in the Triarchic Theory?; To implement ideas and persuade others of their value. What is the purpose of research methods in cognitive psychology?; To investigate mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. What are the common research methods used in cognitive psychology?; Experimental studies, observational studies, and neuroimaging techniques. How do experimental studies contribute to cognitive psychology research?; They allow researchers to manipulate variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships. What is the role of observational studies in cognitive psychology research?; They involve observing and documenting cognitive processes in natural settings. How do neuroimaging techniques aid cognitive psychology research?; They provide insights into brain activity related to cognitive functions. What is a theory?; An organized body of general explanatory principles regarding a phenomenon, usually based on observation. What is the basis of a theory?; Observation. How can a theory be validated?; By the expected outcome when a certain phenomenon occurs. What are hypotheses?; Tentative proposals regarding expected empirical consequences of the theory. What do hypotheses predict?; Outcomes of research. What does statistical significance indicate?; The likelihood that a given set of results would be obtained if only chance factors were in operation. What does statistical significance help to determine?; Whether to refrain or reject a hypothesis.