AP WORLD Unit 7: Shifts in State Power (1900-Present)

Shifts in State Power (1900-Present):

• The 20th century saw major political transformations and the collapse of long-standing empires

• Industrialization, nationalism, and war created pressures that led to revolutions and reforms

• Many land-based and maritime empires struggled to maintain power

• The fall of empires led to the rise of new states, ideologies (communism, nationalism), and conflicts

• These changes set the stage for World War I, World War II, and decolonization

1. Decline of the Ottoman Empire

   1. “Sick Man of Europe” – The Ottoman Empire was already weakened in the 19th century.

   2. Tanzimat Reforms – Attempted defensive industrialization but failed

   3. Young Ottomans – Advocated for constitutional government; briefly succeeded but later revoked

   4. Young Turks (1908) – Overthrew the Sultan, implemented modernization reforms

      1. Secularization of schools & law codes

      2. Political elections

      3. Turkish is the official language

   5. Nationalist Backlash – Alienated ethnic minorities, including Arabs and Armenians, leading to internal fractures

   6. Post-WWI – victorious Allied Powers dismantled the Ottoman Empire

2. The collapse of the Russian Empire

   1. Late 19th Century Industrialization – Led by Tsars Alexander II and Nicholas II

   2. 1905 Russian Revolution

      1. Middle and working-class resentment towards autocracy

      2. Nicholas II introduced reforms, including a constitution, political parties, and labor unions, but largely ignored them

   3. WWI (1914-1918) – Increased economic strain and public discontent

   4. 1917 Russian Revolution

      1. Led by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks

      2. Overthrew the Tsar

      3. Established the communist Soviet Union (USSR)

3. Fall of the Qing Dynasty (China)

   1. Internal Weakness

      1. Taiping Rebellion (1850s-60s) – Peasant uprising resulting in millions of deaths

      2. Failed Industrialization – Weak military and economy

   2. External Pressure

      1. Lost both Opium Wars to Britain and the Sino-Japanese War to Japan

      2. Western and Japanese powers exploited China’s weakness

   3. Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) – Anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising

      1. Crushed by foreign powers, leading to even harsher demands on China

   4. 1911 Chinese Revolution

      1. Led by Sun Yat-sen

      2. Ended 2, 000 years of imperial rule

      3. Established a republic, which later collapsed into warlord conflicts

4. Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)

   1. Porfirio Díaz – Dictator whose policies angered all social classes

   2. Revolution Begins (1910)

      1. Francisco Madero was elected but assassinated in 1912

      2. Civil war followed, led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who led peasant armies.

   3. Outcome (1917)

      1. New Constitution

         1. Universal male suffrage

         2. Minimum wage

         3. Separation of Church and State

   4. Unlike Russia and China, the revolution remained domestic with limited global influence.

Summary of Imperial Collapses:

Causes of World War I:

• The war started after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• Four main causes led to rising tensions before the war:

  • Militarism – Countries built strong armies and weapons

  • Alliances – Countries formed military partnerships

  • Imperialism – Nations competed for land and resources

  • Nationalism – Pride and rivalry among nations grew

• These causes made war likely, and when the conflict started, it quickly spread across the world

1. Militarism

   1. Countries built stronger and bigger militaries to protect their interests

   2. Industrialization allowed for mass production of powerful and deadly weapons

   3. Germany’s military buildup after unification made it the most powerful force in Europe

   4. France and Britain felt threatened, leading to an arms race

   5. Countries focused on military strength over diplomacy, making war more likely

2. International Alliances

   1. Europe was divided into two major alliances

      1. Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

      2. Triple Entente – Britain, France, Russia

   2. Alliances were meant for protection but created tensions

   3. Countries developed detailed war plans for quick mobilization

   4. Once war started, alliances pulled many countries into the conflict instead of limiting it

3. Imperialism

   1. European powers competed for colonies, leading to rivalries

   2. Germany wanted to expand its empire, challenging Britain and France

   3. Once most land was taken, European powers fought over existing colonies

   4. Imperial conflicts increased tensions, pushing countries closer to war

4.  Nationalism

   1. People took pride in their nations and saw others as enemies

   2. Countries believed they had to prove their strength in war

   3. Serbian nationalism led to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

   4. Austria-Hungary saw the assassination as an attack and demanded retaliation

The Spark: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand:

• June 28, 1914 – Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary

• Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia

• Due to alliances, Russia joined to protect Serbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary, and soon all major powers were involved.

• Militarism and war plans made stopping the conflict difficult, leading to World War I

Key Takeaways:

• Militarism led to an arms race, making war more likely

• Alliances turned a small conflict into a global war

• Imperialism increased tensions between European powers

• Nationalism made countries more aggressive and unwilling to compromise

• The assassination of Franz Ferdinand triggered the war, but underlying tensions made it inevitable

• These factors combined created a global conflict that reshaped the world.

World War I’s Warfare and Strategy:

• The post-World War I economic crisis weakened democracies, fueled radical political movements, and set the stage for World War II

1. Total War

   1. World War I was the first “Total War”

   2. Required entire nations (both soldiers and civilians) to contribute

   3. Governments controlled resources, economy, and society for the war effort

   4. Civilians were also seen as military targets

2. Propaganda was widely used.

   1. Governments spread messages to increase morale and support for the war

   2. Demonized enemies and exaggerated their actions

   3. Used nationalism to make people feel their nation was fighting a just war

3. New Military Technology

   1. Weapons were deadlier than ever before

   2. Machine guns – Rapid fire, made direct attacks deadly

   3. Chemical warfare – Poison gas used to kill and disable soldiers

   4. Tanks – Used to break through enemy defenses

4. Trench Warfare

   1. Main fighting strategy on the Western Front

   2. Armies dug long trenches to protect themselves

   3. Trench warfare led to stalemates, where neither side could gain much ground.

   4. Conditions in trenches were terrible

   5. Mud, disease, rats, and constant bombardments made life miserable

   6. Soldiers faced high death rates when trying to charge enemy trenches

5. Global Impact

   1. Colonies were forced to fight.

   2. European powers brought troops from Africa, India, China, Southeast Asia, Australia, and Canada.

   3. Many colonial soldiers hoped for independence after the war but were disappointed.

   4. Mass destruction and casualties

   5. Millions of soldiers and civilians died

   6. Entire cities and regions were destroyed

6. United States Joins the War (1917)

   1. Germany’s actions pushed the U.S. into the war

   2. Unrestricted submarine warfare – Germany sank ships with American passengers.

   3. Zimmermann Telegram – Germany encouraged Mexico to attack the U.S.

   4. U.S. entry helped the Allies win

   5. Fresh American troops and supplies weakened Germany’s position

7. End of the War

   1. Germany and the Central Powers surrendered in 1918

   2. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) officially ended the war

   3. Germany was blamed for the war and forced to pay heavy reparations

   4. France and Britain punished Germany, which later helped cause World War II

The Economic Crisis after World War I in Germany:

• Treaty of Versailles (1919)

  • Forced Germany to pay reparations for war damages

  • War debts were massive, and Germany planned to pay them by using resources from annexed lands

  • Since Germany lost the war, they had no way to pay back debts

• Hyperinflation Crisis (1923)

  • The German government printed more money, leading to extreme inflation

  • The value of the German mark collapsed, making prices skyrocket

  • A loaf of bread went from 160 marks (1922) to 200 billion marks (1923)

  • German money became almost worthless

• Impact on Other Nations

  • Germany couldn’t pay reparations, so Britain and France struggled to repay their war debts to the U.S.

  • The Soviet Union refused to pay debts, further straining the global economy.

  • Colonies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America also suffered because they relied on European economies.

• Stabilization (1924)

  • Germany borrowed money from U.S. banks to repay Britain and France

  • This temporarily improved the economy until another crisis struck

The Soviet Union’s Economic Plans:

• New Economic Policy (NEP) (1923)

  • Vladimir Lenin introduced limited capitalism while keeping major industries under state control

  • Helped stabilize the Soviet economy after the Russian Revolution (1917)

  • Lenin died in 1924, and the policy ended

• Stalin’s Five-Year Plans (1928-1932, 1933-1937)

  • Joseph Stalin took over and launched massive industrialization projects

  • Collectivization of agriculture:

    • Small farms were combined into large state-run farms

    • Wealthy farmers (kulaks) resisted and were arrested or executed

    • This led to mass starvation, especially in Ukraine (Holodomor, 1932-1933)

  • Soviet Industrial Growth:

    • Factories and cities expanded rapidly

    • Production increased but at huge human costs

The Great Depression (1929-1939):

• U.S. Stock Market Crash (1929)

  • The U.S. economy collapsed, leading to mass unemployment and bank failures

  • Since many European countries relied on U.S. loans, the crisis spread globally

  • Trade slowed, businesses closed, and millions lost jobs worldwide

• Government Response: The New Deal (1933-1939)

  • Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) launched a series of government programs to fix the economy

  • Key policies:

    • Created jobs through government infrastructure projects

    • Established Social Security (retirement benefits)

    • Provided medical assistance for the elderly and children

  • The New Deal helped, but the U.S. economy remained weak

• Impact on the World

  • Many nations increased government control over the economy

  • Fascist governments (Germany, Italy, Japan) gained support as people lost faith in democracy

  • World War II (1939) ultimately ended the Great Depression by increasing industrial production

Key Takeaways:

• Germany faced economic collapse due to war debts and hyperinflation

• The Soviet Union used strict government control to industrialize, causing mass suffering

• The Great Depression spread worldwide, crippling economies

• Government intervention became more common, but economic struggles continued

• World War II became the ultimate solution to economic problems by increasing jobs and production

Mandate System:

• Colonial soldiers fought in World War I, expecting independence afterward

• Instead of granting freedom, European powers and Japan kept or expanded their colonies

• The Treaty of Versailles (1919) divided former Ottoman and German territories among the victors

• The League of Nations created the Mandate System:

  • Class C Mandates – Small, “undeveloped” regions treated as colonies (Pacific islands under British and Japanese control)

  • Class B Mandates – Larger regions still ruled by victors (German colonies in Africa split between Britain and France)

  • Class A Mandates – “Almost ready for independence” but still controlled (Middle Eastern lands under British and French rule)

  • Britain controlled Palestine and Iraq, France controlled Syria and Lebanon

• Impact of the Mandate System

  • Many colonial people expected self-rule but were betrayed

  • Anti-imperial resistance grew, as people rejected continued foreign control

Japan’s Expansion:

• Japan was the only non-Western imperial power

• In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria to gain resources

• The League of Nations condemned Japan, but Japan ignored them and left the League

• By 1932, Japan created a puppet state in Manchuria (Manchukuo)

• Japan continued expanding across the Pacific, forming the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Anti-Imperial Resistance Movements:

• Indian National Congress (INC)

  • Formed in the late 19th century to demand self-rule from Britain

  • Many Indians fought for Britain in WWI, expecting political freedoms afterward

  • Britain made small reforms but kept control over India

  • In the 1920s, Mahatma Gandhi became a leader, promoting peaceful protests against British rule

  • India remained under British control until after World War II

• African National Congress (ANC)

  • Founded in South Africa by Western-educated leaders

  • Fought for equal rights for Black South Africans under British rule

  • Inspired by Pan-Africanism, which sought unity and equality among all Black people

  • Opposed racist policies but didn’t achieve success until after World War II

Key Takeaways:

• European powers kept control over colonies despite promises of independence.

• The Mandate System allowed victors to take over former Ottoman and German lands.

• Japan expanded its empire, ignoring League of Nations restrictions

• Anti-imperial resistance grew in India and Africa, though full independence came later

• World War II would further weaken European control over colonies, leading to eventual decolonization

• The post-WWI era was full of broken promises, increasing tensions leading to future independence movements and global conflict.

Causes of World War II:

• The Treaty of Versailles punished Germany, creating anger and economic struggles

• Germany, Italy, and Japan expanded their empires without resistance

• The Great Depression led to fascist and totalitarian governments gaining power

• Appeasement encouraged Hitler to keep expanding without fear of war

• World War II became inevitable as tensions escalated

• These causes directly led to the outbreak of World War II in 1939, shaping the modern world

1. Treaty of Versailles and Its Consequences

   1. Germany was blamed for World War I, leading to harsh punishments

   2. War reparations caused economic collapse and hyperinflation

   3. Germany’s military was reduced, leaving it vulnerable

   4. War Guilt Clause humiliated Germany, creating resentment

   5. Italy felt betrayed because it did not receive the promised land after the war

2. Imperial Expansion and Aggression

   1. Japan expanded into China and the Pacific (1931-1937):

      1. Invaded Manchuria (1931) and later China, forming the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

      2. The League of Nations condemned Japan, but it had no power to stop them

   2. Italy expanded its empire:

      1. Invaded Ethiopia (1935) after being denied land after WWI

      2. Combined African colonies into a formal Italian Empire

   3. Germany’s aggressive expansion:

      1. Adolf Hitler ignored the Treaty of Versailles and began expanding Germany

      2. Reoccupied the Rhineland (1936), a demilitarized buffer zone

      3. Annexed Austria (1938) and Czechoslovakia (1939), claiming “living space” for Germans

3. Global Economic Crisis and the Great Depression

   1. The 1929 stock market crash in the U.S. led to a global depression

   2. Unemployment and poverty made people desperate for strong leaders

   3. Germany, Italy, and Japan used militarization and war industries to boost their economies

   4. Weakened economies meant weak resistance to aggressive nations

4. Rise of Fascism and Totalitarianism

   1. Germany – Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party

      1. Used ultra-nationalism, anti-Semitism, and military expansion to unite Germany

      2. Canceled war reparations and rebuilt the military

      3. Promoted the idea of ​​Aryan racial superiority

   2. Italy – Benito Mussolini and Fascism

      1. Created a totalitarian state, glorifying nationalism and militarism

      2. Promised to restore the Roman Empire

      3. Used propaganda and mass rallies to gain public support

   3. Soviet Union – Joseph Stalin and Communism

      1. Controlled the economy through Five-Year Plans and collectivization

      2. Aimed to spread communism worldwide, worrying Western powers

      3. Used purges and forced labor camps to eliminate opposition

5. Appeasement and Failure of the League of Nations

   1. Britain and France avoided conflict to prevent another war

   2. Allowed Hitler to take Austria and Czechoslovakia without consequences

   3. The Munich Agreement (1938) – Britain and France let Hitler take the Sudetenland

   4. The League of Nations lacked military power and failed to stop aggressive nations

World War II - Warfare and Strategy:

• World War II was a total war, with full mobilization of societies and economies

• Propaganda and nationalism played a huge role in the war efforts

• Blitzkrieg, firebombing, and the atomic bomb changed warfare forever

• The war ended with the surrender of Germany and Japan, leading to a new world order 

1. Total War and Global Involvement

   1. World War II was a total war, requiring full mobilization of military and civilians

   2. Civilians became military targets, making the war even deadlier than World War I

   3. Germany invaded Poland (1939), triggering the war as Britain and France declared war on Germany

   4. Two major alliances formed:

      1. Axis Powers – Germany, Italy, Japan

      2. Allied Powers – Britain, France, later the Soviet Union (after Germany invaded) and the U.S. (after Pearl Harbor)

2. War Strategies and Mobilization

   1. Propaganda and Nationalism:

      1. Governments used propaganda to boost morale, demonize enemies, and encourage war support

      2. Nationalist messages promoted sacrifice and unity among citizens

   2. Use of Ideologies in War

      1. Fascism (Germany, Italy, Japan)

         1. Focused on extreme nationalism, state control, and military expansion

         2. Used forced labor and concentration camps to support the war effort

3. Communism (Soviet Union)

   1. Joseph Stalin pushed extreme industrialization and collectivization to supply weapons and resources.

4. Democracy (U.S. and Britain)

   1. Winston Churchill (Britain) rallied the public through speeches and propaganda.

   2. Governments expanded social programs in exchange for wartime sacrifices.

3. Repression of Civil Liberties

   1. Japanese Americans in the U.S. were forced into internment camps after Pearl Harbor.

   2. Jews and other minorities in Germany were sent to ghettos, forced labor camps, and death camps.

   3. Many civil rights were suspended in wartime nations.

3. New Military Tactics and Technologies

   1. Blitzkrieg (“Lightning War”):

      1. Germany’s strategy to attack fast with planes, tanks, and infantry

      2. Avoided trench warfare, making battles faster and more destructive

   2. Firebombing:

      1. Used by Allied forces to destroy entire cities

      2. Dresden (Germany) and Tokyo (Japan) were firebombed, killing hundreds of thousands

   3. The Atomic Bomb:

      1. The U.S. developed the atomic bomb (Manhattan Project)

      2. Dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945), causing massive destruction

      3. Japan surrendered, officially ending the war in the Pacific

4. End of the War and Aftermath

   1. Germany surrendered (May 1945) after the Allies pushed into Berlin

   2. Japan surrendered (August 1945) after the atomic bombings

   3. World War II was the deadliest war in history, leading to massive destruction and political changes

Mass Atrocities of the 20th Century:

• War, extremist ideologies, and racial/ethnic hatred fueled mass killings in the 20th century

• Governments used systematic persecution, forced labor, and mass executions

• Genocides like the Armenian Genocide, Holocaust, and Cambodian Genocide show the dangers of unchecked power

• These atrocities reshaped human rights laws and led to efforts to prevent future genocides

• Despite these tragedies, genocide and ethnic violence continued into the 21st century, shaping global politics and humanitarian efforts.

1. Causes of Mass Atrocities

   1. World Wars and Violence:

      1. World War I & II led to about 120 million deaths, nearly half of which were civilians

      2. New military technology (firebombing, aerial warfare, and atomic bombs) increased destruction

   2. Extremist Political Ideologies:

      1. Totalitarian regimes (Nazi Germany, Soviet Union, Khmer Rouge, etc.) targeted certain groups

      2. Racial, ethnic, and political purges led to genocide and forced labor

2. Genocides and Mass Killings

   1. Armenian Genocide (1915-1916):

      1. Ottoman Empire targeted Armenian Christians, fearing they would support foreign enemies

      2. Mass killings, forced relocations, and starvation resulted in 600,000 to 1 million deaths

2. The Holocaust (1941-1945):

   1. Hitler’s “Final Solution” aimed to exterminate Jews and other “undesirables”

   2. Nuremberg Laws (1935) stripped Jews of rights; ghettos isolated them

   3. Concentration and extermination camps (e.g., Auschwitz) were used for forced labor and mass killings

   4. 6 million Jews and 5 million others (Roma, disabled, political prisoners, LGBTQ+) were murdered

3. Cambodian Genocide (1975-1979):

   1. The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, took over Cambodia

   2. Aimed to create a rural, agrarian society by eliminating Western influence

   3. Targeted intellectuals, professionals, and urban populations forcing them into labor camps

   4. Around 2 million people (¼ of the Cambodian population) were killed

Essential Questions:

1. How did internal and external factors contribute to change in various states up to 1900? 

• Ottoman Empire – Internal nationalism and failed reforms weakened the empire, while European intervention after WWI led to its collapse.

• Russian Empire – Growing discontent from industrialization and worker oppression led to revolutions, ending Tsarist rule.

• Qing Dynasty (China) – Foreign dominance (Opium Wars, Western interference) and internal uprisings (Taiping Rebellion, Boxer Rebellion) led to collapse.

• Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) – Dictatorship and social inequality led to peasant-led revolutions, creating a republic.

2. What were the causes of World War I? 

• Militarism – Countries built massive armies and weapons, making war more likely.

• Alliances – Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) vs. Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia).

• Imperialism – European nations competed for colonies, increasing tensions.

• Nationalism – Extreme pride and rivalries fueled conflicts, especially in the Balkans.

• Immediate Spark – The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914) led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, triggering alliances.

3. What methods did governments use in the conduct of war? 

• World War I:

  • Total War – Full mobilization of economies and societies, including civilians.

  • Propaganda – Governments spread nationalist messages to justify war and increase morale.

  • Trench Warfare – Defensive strategy led to stalemates and mass casualties.

  • New Technology – Machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and airplanes changed warfare.

• World War II

  • Blitzkrieg (“Lightning War”) – Germany used fast-moving air and tank attacks.

  • Firebombing – Cities were bombed to cause destruction (e.g., Dresden, Tokyo).

  • The Atomic Bomb – The U.S. used nuclear weapons to force Japan’s surrender.

  • Labor Camps and Forced Labor – Fascist states used civilians for war production.

4. How did societies, states, and governments change and adapt after World War I? 

• New Borders and States – The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires collapsed, leading to new nations.

• Mandate System – Former colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were controlled by Britain and France.

• Rise of Anti-Imperial Movements – Indian National Congress and African National Congress resisted colonial rule.

• Weakened Democracies – Economic instability made people turn to authoritarian leaders like Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin.

• Treaty of Versailles (1919) – Blamed Germany for the war, leading to resentment and future conflicts.

5. How did different governments respond to economic crises after 1900? 

• Germany (1920s) – Hyperinflation due to war reparations, leading to economic collapse.

• Soviet Union (1920s-1930s) – Five-Year Plans focused on rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, leading to famine.

• United States (1930s) – The New Deal introduced government programs to fix the Great Depression, including Social Security and job creation.

• Japan and Germany (1930s) – Militarization and war expansion were used to solve economic problems.

6. What continuities and changes in nations and territories have existed since 1900?

• Continuities

  • Western dominance over global politics and economy.

  • Colonial exploitation continued through the Mandate System.

  • Military alliances remained a key factor in global conflicts (NATO, Warsaw Pact).

• Changes

  • The collapse of European empires and the rise of independent nations (India, African decolonization).

  • Shift from monarchies to authoritarian and democratic governments.

  • Rise of the U.S. and Soviet Union as superpowers after WWII.

7. What were the causes and consequences of World War II? 

• Causes

  • Treaty of Versailles – Germany resented its harsh terms.

  • Imperial Expansion – Japan, Germany, and Italy sought more land.

  • Great Depression – Economic struggles fueled fascist governments.

  • Appeasement – Britain and France failed to stop Hitler early.

• Consequences

  • Mass destruction and loss of life – Over 70 million deaths.

  • Holocaust – The genocide of 6 million Jews and other minorities.

  • Cold War begins – The U.S. and Soviet Union became global rivals.

  • Decolonization – Many colonies gained independence after WWII.

8. What similarities and differences existed in governments’ methods of conducting war?

• Similarities

  • Total War – Full mobilization of societies in WWI and WWII.

  • Propaganda – Used in both wars to boost nationalism.

  • Technological Advancements – New weapons changed warfare (tanks, airplanes, chemical weapons, nuclear bombs).

• Differences

  • WWI relied on trench warfare, while WWII was more mobile (Blitzkrieg, firebombing, atomic bomb use).

  • WWII had more civilian casualties due to strategic bombing and the Holocaust.

  • WWII had global involvement, with battles in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

9. What have been the various causes and consequences of mass atrocities since 1900?

• Causes

  • Political extremism – Nazi Germany, Soviet Union, Khmer Rouge.

  • Ethnic and religious conflicts – Targeting of Armenians, Jews, and Cambodians.

  • Totalitarian regimes used forced labor, genocide, and political purges.

• Consequences

  • Millions of deaths, with genocide becoming a global issue.

  • New human rights laws (United Nations, Geneva Conventions).

  • Increased focus on preventing genocide, though ethnic violence continued.

Vocabulary:

• Serbia: A Balkan nation whose nationalist movements contributed to the start of World War I after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

• Taiping Rebellion: A massive peasant uprising in China (1850-1864) led by Hong Xiuquan against the Qing Dynasty, causing millions of deaths.

• Empress Dowager Cixi: A powerful Qing ruler who opposed modernization and controlled China from behind the throne during the late 19th century.

• Yamagata Aritomo: A Japanese military leader and statesman who played a key role in modernizing Japan’s army and expanding its imperial influence.

• Mexican Revolution: A violent uprising (1910-1920) against dictator Porfirio Díaz, leading to social reforms and a new constitution.

• Emiliano Zapata: A Mexican revolutionary leader who fought for land reforms and peasant rights during the Mexican Revolution.

• Francisco “Pancho” Villa: A Mexican revolutionary general who led guerrilla attacks against the government and U.S. forces.

• Western Front: The main battlefront of World War I, characterized by trench warfare between Germany and the Allies in France and Belgium.

• Faisal: An Arab leader who helped lead the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire during World War I and later became King of Iraq.

• Theodore Herzl: The founder of modern political Zionism, advocating for a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

• Balfour Declaration: A 1917 statement by Britain supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

• Bolsheviks: A radical socialist group led by Vladimir Lenin that overthrew the Russian government and established communist rule.

• Vladimir Lenin: The leader of the Bolsheviks and the first leader of the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution.

• Sun Yat-sen: A Chinese revolutionary who helped overthrow the Qing Dynasty and founded the Republic of China.

• Yuan Shikai: A Chinese general who briefly ruled China as a dictator after the fall of the Qing Dynasty.

• Guomindang: A Chinese nationalist party founded by Sun Yat-sen that fought against the communists for control of China.

• Woodrow Wilson: The U.S. president during World War I who proposed the Fourteen Points for peace.

• Fourteen Points: Woodrow Wilson’s plan for post-war peace, including self-determination and the League of Nations.

• League of Nations: An international organization formed after World War I to prevent future conflicts but was ultimately ineffective.

• Mandate System: A League of Nations policy that placed former Ottoman and German territories under British and French control instead of granting independence.

• New Economic Policy: Lenin’s temporary economic reform allowed limited capitalism to stabilize the Soviet economy after the Russian Civil War.

• Joseph Stalin: The leader of the Soviet Union who ruled through dictatorship, industrialization, and political purges.

• Five-Year Plans: Stalin’s economic policies aimed at rapid industrialization and collectivization, often causing mass suffering.

• Treaty of Versailles: The peace treaty that ended World War I, blaming Germany and imposing harsh reparations.

• Atatürk: The founder of modern Turkey who implemented secular and Western-style reforms.

• Chiang Kai-shek: The leader of the Guomindang who fought against communists in China and later fled to Taiwan.

• Benito Mussolini: The fascist dictator of Italy who allied with Hitler during World War II.

• Fascist Party: An authoritarian nationalist movement led by Benito Mussolini in Italy.

• Adolf Hitler: The leader of Nazi Germany who started World War II and orchestrated the Holocaust.

• Nazis: The German fascist party led by Adolf Hitler that promoted extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and military expansion.

• Mao Zedong: The communist leader of China who led the Long March and later established the People’s Republic of China.

• Long March: The retreat of Chinese communists led by Mao Zedong to escape Guomindang forces, strengthening their movement.

• Stalingrad: A major World War II battle where Soviet forces defeated Nazi Germany, marking a turning point in the war.

• El Alamein: A key battle in North Africa during World War II where British forces stopped German expansion.

• Pearl Harbor: A surprise attack by Japan on a U.S. naval base in 1941, leading to U.S. entry into World War II.

• Battle of Midway: A decisive World War II naval battle in the Pacific where the U.S. defeated Japan, shifting the war’s momentum.

• Hiroshima: The first Japanese city targeted by an atomic bomb, dropped by the U.S. in 1945, leading to Japan’s surrender.

• Auschwitz: The largest Nazi concentration and extermination camp, where millions, especially Jews, were murdered during the Holocaust.

• Holocaust: The Nazi genocide of six million Jews and millions of others during World War II.