ANTH1003W

Week 2

What is Anthropology? 

• Anthropology is the study people and societies, past and present

• This knowledge is generally used to “better understand” those people and societies but what does this mean? Is it always a good thing?

• The roots of the discipline of anthropology lie in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as europeans economic and colonial expansion increased that continents contact with people worldwide

Herodotus and Thucydides: Portrait double(twin) herma of Herodotus and Thucydides, archetype from 400-350 BC. Plaster cast. Gallery of classical art in hostinné.

Who was Herodotus and why does he matter for Anthropology? 

• Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus, which is now modern-day Bodrum, Turkey in 484 BC. 

• Often referred to as the ‘father’ of history and the ‘father’ of anthropology 

• Because of his extensive travels throughout the ancient world, where he meticulously documented the customs, cultures, and beliefs of different peoples, providing one of the earliest comprehensive looks at diverse societies through his writings, particularly in his work  

• The works also cover the lives of prominent kings and other famous battles. 

Herodotus’ Methodology as historian and anthropologist: 

Cause and effect, not just information, but the crafting of information into a narrative 

• The diversity and breadth of data: his work drew upon a wide range of sources including personal observations, interviews, and written records.

• He provided extensive, detailed descriptions of the various customs, cultures and beliefs of the people he encountered and experienced during his travels in The Histories.

• Multiple Narratives of the same event: Oral history accounts that sometimes contradicted each other. Multiple narratives allowed people to see the breadth of opinions about an event and to some extent, decide for themselves.   

Main point: Herodotus was not always taken seriously. 

• Rival Historian Thucydides, chose to rely only on ‘factual’ evidence which provided a less subjective account of events and considered Herodotus’ work to be unreliable and full of exaggeration. 

The Peloponnesian War: 

• In the late 5th century BC, at roughly the same time that Herodotus’ Histories was published, the next great war in the Central Mediterranean occured.  

• Thucydides: He not only witnessed this war first-hand, he was a general in the Peloponnesian War. 

In Contrast, Thucydides saw his own approach to history as: 

• Focused on direct speech and dialogue: Thucydides often presented historical events through realistic conversations, allowing readers to experience the perspectives of different characters provided.

Colonialism: (textbook definition)  

• The practice by which states extend political,economic, and military power beyond their own borders over an extended period of time to secure access to raw materials, cheap labor, and markets in other countries or regions.

• The practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another. At least since the Crusades and the conquest of the Americas, political theorists have used theories of justice, contract, and natural law to both criticize and justify European domination. 

• A term refers to the project of European political domination that began the 15th century. 

Colonialism vs. Imperialism: Etymological Analysis

• Colonialism: the term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. This root reminds us that the practice of colonialism- particularly settler colonialism, involved the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arrivals lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance. 

• Imperialism: this term comes from the latin term imperium 

Types of Colonial Rule: 

Direct rule:

• The colonial government maintained a monopoly on law, policy, and administration

• Colonial officials oversaw aspects of governance 

• The native population was excluded from all but the lowest level of government 

• European leaders, laws, and institutions were imposed on indigenous populations 

• Ex: UK in Northern Ireland (1972-1998), India (after 1858) 

Indirect rule: 

• Local power-holders were delegated day-to-day governance 

• Intermediaries, such as those with traditional authority, represented and enforced political authority 

• Local traditions and practices were preserved

• Ex: Early British Colonization of India, or British Raj via the East India Company. (1757- 1858 Mutiny) 

Colonial Precursors or Origins: 

• Although the term colonialism is most often invoked in relation to the “modern” phenomenon of colonial expansion that began in the 16th CE, colonialism is not a modern phenomenon at all. 

• Ex: The roman Empire, from 500 BCE- 117 AD

Anthropology thus began a colonial science, the product of a settler colonialism uniquely focused on the study of the languages, history, cultured, and biology of non-European people seen as ‘primitive,’ or ‘ancient’ all around the world 

Early ‘Ethnography’: A sampling of commissioned travel writings: 

• In 1627, at the age of only 21, Sir Thomas Herbert travelled to Persia and India as a low-ranking member of Charles I’s embassy to Shah Abbas I. 

• The account below is an excerpt from his portrait of Shah Abbas I, in Some Years Travels into Diverse Parts of Africa and Asia, first published in 1634.

• Herbert was intrigued by the “exotic customs” and practices he witnessed: Zoroastrian burial rites, for example, where the naked corpse was laid on top of a burial tower “exposed to the Sunnes fiery rage and devouring appetites of Vultures and Cormorants. Herbert comments that these rites are ‘better to be spoken of than seen.’ 

De las Casas, the benevolent missionary:

• Spanish missionary Bartolomé de las Casas (1484-1566) wrote many travel writings about the Spanish conquest of the Americas including hi 12 confessions, which was a critique of the colonial project of European Empire, indigenous genocide and war. 

Critique of Colonial Origins: 4 centuries late 

• While anthropology was inextricably linked with colonialism, it wasn't until the late 1960s and early 1970s that anthropology critically engaged with its colonial history- and this was despite the fact that early ethnographers and anthropologists did write about the colonial encounter. Some, like de Las Casas and, as we will soon see Malinowski (week 4) even wrote about the effects of colonialism on the locals, and yet no serious challenges to colonial power and authority itself. 

Week 3 

The enlightenment is often described as: 

• An intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe (and spread to its colonies) 

Why is Anthropology described as an Enlightenment Discipline? 

• Because the historical and geographical roots of modern anthropology can be traced back to europe during the “Age of Enlightenment.” (1685-1815) 

Historical and Philosophical Roots:

• Shift toward reason and observation (of ourselves, but also the “other”) 

• Concept of universal humanity (including the universality of reason) 

• Exploration of human and cultural diversity (reason exists everywhere, “even among the ‘primitives’!”) 

Many of these enlightenment realizations were taking place not just at a time of colonialism, but through colonial exploration and expansionist projects.

Why would mediation be bad? 

• Mediation of priest/church between believer and god? 

• Mediation of money for forgiveness?

Luther believed that: 

1. The relationship between the believer and God is a personal relationship 

2. Salvation is a gift only God can give to those who have faith 

Connection between Luther and Enlightenment: 

Individual truth: Luther believed that the Bible, not the Catholic Church, held the truth. This gave individuals the power to seek their own truth. 

Freedom of conscience: Luther's ideas encouraged people to question the Catholic Church's authority.

Irony: Reason is the enemy of Faith

• Martin Luther believed that reason and faith were at odds, with reason being the enemy of faith. He thought that the Gospel required superrational faith, not rational decision-making.

• However, he also believed that reason had a role in organizing the world, such as in politics and economics. 

What are the philosophical ideals of the enlightenment? 

• In other words, what did it mean to say “I am enlightened”?

Some features: reason, individualism, skepticism, science (and with it, rationality liberalism) 

Later development: human rights, religious freedom, constitutional freedom, liberalism     

Philosopher Immanuel Kant: 

• Essay is an answer to the question, "What is Enlightenment?” Written in 1784 

• Enlightenment is the act of individuals “daring to know” and using their own understanding without relying solely on external authority 

Key points in the essay: 

• Enlightenment is man's emergence from  his self-imposed immaturity. 

• Laziness and cowardice are the enemies of reason. They have become human nature. They do not have to be. 

• Nothing is required for this enlightenment- except freedom. Kant says the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters. 

What is up with the Private/Public Divide Reason and Freedom? 

• We don't always have private freedom. We must always have public freedom- Society must decide to grant this freedom collectively. 

• Kant believes that the society of his time is an “age of enlightenment” but not an “enlightened age.” This means that the restraints on free thinking are slowly being lifted, but not entirely. 

• Teleological thinking: The idea that human societies are in a developmental stage that moves towards progress. 

Difficulties: 

• Kant approves of enlightened monarchs such as Frederick the Great of Prussia, who grants religious freedom and freedom of speech to his subjects.

• Enlightenment is a universal projects 

• Enlightenment is a moral project 

• Who gets freedom and who needs to be ruled?

Why is Anthropology described as an Enlightenment Discipline?

• Because the historical and geographical roots of modern anthropology can be traced back to Europe during the “Age of Enlightenment.” (1685-1815, roughly)

• Because the philosophical roots of modern anthropology can be traced back to intellectual movement known as the European Enlightenment. 

Establishing Universal Humanity through Observation

• Enlightenment anthropology viewed all humans as a single species.

• Human diversity explained through geographical & cultural differences (time and space).

Two Major Anthropological Models:

1. Cultural Evolution → “Same but developmentally unequal”

   • Civilizational progress model (e.g., Lewis Henry Morgan, E.B. Tyler, Herbert Spencer).

2. Cultural Relativism → “Different but equal”

   • Emphasized humanistic anthropology (e.g., Franz Boas, Robert Lowie, Margaret Mead).

J.G. Herder (1744-1803) – Cultural Relativism

• Understanding difference is the key task of anthropology.

• Best method: Participant-observation (living within a culture).

• Self-understanding is enhanced by studying other cultures.

• Influence: Major figure in the development of cultural relativism.

G.W. Hegel (1770-1831) – Cultural Evolution

• Anthropological theory of history: Human progress moves toward greater freedom & self-consciousness.

• Civilizations evolve from community-based to individual-based identities.

• Peak human development = Absolute freedom within a rational, modern state.

• Influences:

  • Comparative history

  • Cultural evolutionism

  • Economic theory (Capitalism, Marxist historical materialism)

Critiques of the Enlightenment

1) Adorno & Horkheimer – Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944)

• Context: Written during WWII by German-Jewish scholars who fled Nazi Germany.

• Central Question: If Enlightenment was meant to bring freedom & understanding, why did it lead to fascism & oppression?

• Key Arguments:

  • Enlightenment’s pursuit of reason led to control, oppression, and totalitarianism.

  • The “Myth of Enlightenment”: Rationality has become just another controlling ideology.

  • Enlightenment’s contradictions create a dialectic—it produces both liberation & oppression.

2) Marshall Sahlins – “What is Anthropological Enlightenment?” (1999)

• Critiques Enlightenment-based anthropology & cultural evolutionism.

• 3 Main Points:

  1. No such thing as a pure, primitive society to study. (Challenges evolutionist anthropology).

  2. Modernity does not erase culture—cultural resistance takes unique, local forms.

  3. The West is losing relevance—other cultures see Enlightenment’s failures.

Week 4

Herbert Spencer- 

• In Spencer's day social Darwinism was invoked to justify laissez-faire economics (minimal interference of the state.) 

• Spencer believed that humans have natural economic tendencies (homo-economics) 

Cultural Evolution 

• The underlying universality in their thinking? Recall that Spencer described cultural evolution as a theory for understanding “the universal history of mankind” 

• The work of all three cultural evolutionists (Spencer, Tylor, and morgan) is connected by the shared belief in the psychic unity of mankind. The theory of “psychic unity” held that all groups progressed in like manner towards the highest civilization, Western Europe. 

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) and Social Darwinism

• Victorian-era sociologist and philosopher.

• Early advocate of social evolution or social Darwinism (applying Darwin's theory of evolution to society).

• Saw cultural anthropology as the "natural history of society" or the "universal history of mankind."

• Argued that just as biological evolution explains changes in organisms, social evolution explains changes in societies.

• Supported individualism over society and science over religion.

• Connected to Enlightenment thinking (emphasis on reason, progress, and universal history).

E.B. Tylor (1832-1917) – Founder of Cultural Anthropology

• Proposed cultural survivals theory in Primitive Culture (1871).

• Unilineal evolution model: Cultures progress through fixed stages: savagery → barbarism → civilization.

• Cultural survivals: Older cultural elements persist in modern societies (e.g., traditional songs, games, and customs).

• Magic → Superstition: Example of cultural survivals.

• Believed in universal cultural progress (against racial determinism).

Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) – Cultural Evolution and Ancient Society (1877)

• American lawyer; studied the Iroquois and was adopted by them.

• Followed Tylor’s unilineal model but added subdivisions of savagery and barbarism:

  • Savagery (Lower, Middle, Upper)

  • Barbarism (Lower, Middle, Upper)

  • Civilization

• Technological development drives social progress (e.g., fire, bow and arrow, agriculture).

• Key institutions in cultural evolution:

  • Family structure

  • Property relations

  • Government

  • Religion

  • Language

  • Subsistence

Morgan’s 6 Stages of Family Evolution:

1. Horde society – No clear family structure, total promiscuity.

2. Group marriage (brothers and sisters permitted to marry).

3. Group marriage (but no brother-sister unions).

4. Paired male-female relationships emerge.

5. Husband-dominant families, polygamy allowed.

6. Monogamous families in civilization (more equal in status).

Cultural Evolution Continued.. 

The problem: Comparative analysis of societies on the path to “higher civilizational forms” suggested that some civilizations were allegedly ahead of others. 

The question: facing anthropologists of that time was: How to account for these differences while remaining true to the idea of unilineal cultural evolution?

Two dominant explanations:

 #1 All societies are evolving but at a different pace. Conclusion: “Eventually everyone is going to get civilized, even if it takes some people longer.” 

• All societies are evolving but in different ways. Conclusion: the shift from ‘savagery’ to civility is inevitable, but it will not look the same for everyone. 

#2 Some societies will always be more evolved than others. Why? Because they are innately superior. Conclusion: everyone will get ‘somewhere’, but some societies will always be more civilized than others.  

Another way to describe the differences between the above two explanations: 

#1 is based in the logic of social determinism 

#2 is based in the logic of biological determinism

Social determinism: people are shaped by, and according to, their social environment. In this view, societies with more ‘evolved’ forms of social institutions-education, politics, the arts etc. will produce more advanced societies. 

• The idea that the human self is an extension of its society dates back to ancient Greece and was integral to the internal logic of both Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics 

• Proponents of this view often framed Empire and the colonial project as humanist endeavors because they sought to bring all societies “into the light of civilization”(🤮) 

Biological Determinism: The idea that a person's behavior and characteristics are determined by their genes, rather than environmental factors. 

• Ironically, this idea can also be traced back to ancient Greece. Aristotle, for example, believed that slavery was good for those who were born natural slaves, as without masters they wouldn't have known how to run their lives.

• No surprise, this way of thinking also aligned with the colonial project, as it served. 

Cultural Evolution ‘evolves’ into Race theory

• Theories of cultural evolution that were established by figures like Spencer, Tylor and Morgan in the 19th Century directly shaped twentieth century anthropological perceptions of race. 

• Nineteenth century anthropologists often used the comparative method to map cultural differences onto racial differences. 

• Up until the early twentieth century, anthropologists abided by ideas of white supremacy.  

Week 5

Scientific and Philosophical Origins of Relativism

1. Theory of Relativity (Albert Einstein):
   
   

   • Space and time are relative to an observer’s frame of reference.

   • The laws of physics apply universally but are experienced differently depending on motion.

2. Philosophical Relativism:
   
   

   • Ethical relativism: Truth, morality, and reasoning are products of cultural conventions.

   • No universal standards exist for right and wrong; context determines meaning.

3. Question: Do these views support universalism (one overarching truth) or particularism (multiple truths based on context)?
   
   

Franz Boas and the Rise of Cultural Relativism

• Franz Boas (1858-1942), German-American anthropologist, known as the “Father of American Anthropology.”

• Trained in physics and geography, but his fieldwork with the Baffin Island Inuit led him to anthropology.

• Conducted extensive research on indigenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest.

• Became a professor at Columbia University (1889) and shaped the discipline of anthropology.

Boas’ Critique of Cultural Evolution and Scientific Racism

1. Opposed Scientific Racism:
   
   

   • At the time, race was seen as a biological concept, and behavior was explained through physical traits.

   • Boas disproved racial hierarchy theories by showing that cranial shape and size vary based on environment (nutrition, health).

   • Refuted claims that certain races had inherently superior intelligence.

2. Challenged Social Darwinism and Cultural Evolution:
   
   

   • Many anthropologists (like Spencer, Morgan, Tylor) saw cultures as evolving in hierarchical stages (savagery → barbarism → civilization).

   • Boas rejected unilinear models and argued that cultures develop historically through interactions, not fixed stages.

   • No single, universal path to cultural progress.

3. Museum Work and Artifact Organization:
   
   

   • Boas rejected arranging artifacts by evolutionary stages (primitive to advanced).

   • Instead, he grouped them by cultural affinity and historical connections.

Boas’ Cultural Relativism

• Boas never used the term "cultural relativism"—it was later coined by his student Robert Lowie.

• His commitment to fieldwork led him to conclude that cultures must be understood on their own terms.

• Key Methodology:

  • Extensive ethnographic research to grasp why people live as they do.

  • No universal ranking of cultures—each must be analyzed within its own historical and social context.

George Stocking on Boas’ Impact

• Stocking highlighted how Boas separated "culture" from "civilization."

• Earlier anthropologists (Tylor, Spencer) used these terms interchangeably, assuming civilization meant cultural progress.

• Boas’ view:

  • Cultures are unique and historically specific, not different stages of one universal culture.

  • Civilizations, however, can be compared in terms of technological advancement (e.g., Europe has more advanced technology than the Kwakiutl).

  • This allowed Boas to accept civilizational differences while rejecting cultural superiority.

Clifford Geertz: “Anti-Anti-Relativism”

• In his article, Geertz critiques anti-relativism rather than defending relativism itself.

• Key Arguments:

  • Cultural relativism is often used as a scare tactic to reject new ways of thinking.

  • Understanding cultures on their own terms is valuable and should not be abandoned.

  • The fear of relativism existed even in social evolutionist theories (e.g., Tylor’s survival theory acknowledges cultural differences based on historical context).

  • Instead of discarding relativism, anthropologists should refine their tools to better study cultural contexts.

Cultural Relativism- “Cultural relativism is a theory and approach that was developed in order to avoid judging the cultural practices of groups that are different to yours. Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal. Instead, we should try to understand the cultural practices of other groups in its own cultural context.”  Khan Academy

Theory of Relativity: Is a theorem formulated by Albert Einstein, which states that space and time are relative, and all motion must be relative to a frame of reference. It is a notion that states laws of physics are the same everywhere. 

Relativism in Philosophy: Ethical relativism is the view that truth and falsity, right and wrong, standards of reasoning, and procedures of justification.

Franz Boas: 

• (1858-1942) 

• German- American Anthropologist 

• “Father of American Anthropology”

• Trained in Physics(Ph,D.) and Geography 

• He then participated in a geographical expedition to northern Canada 

• Became fascinated with the culture and language of the Baffin Island Inuit. He went on to do field work on the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest 

• Emigrated to the United States in 1887, where he first worked as a museum curator at the Smithsonian 

• Became a professor of anthropology at Columbia University in 1886, where he remained for the rest of his career.

What was Boas arguing against? How did he arrive at relativism as an alternative? 

• Boas was one of the most prominent opponents of the then-popular ideologies of scientific and cultural theories of racism

• Scientific racism was the idea that race is biological. 

Boas against scientific racism continued….. 

• Since cultural evolutionary theory was also being used by many anthropologists of his time to reaffirm scientific racism, Boas was also arguing against forms of social Darwinism that were being mapped onto culture and societies.

• He rejected the cultural evolutionary theories that saw all societies as progressing through a set of hierarchical technological and cultural stages, with Western European culture at the summit. (recall Spencer, Morgan, and Tyler, but also philosophers like Hegel)   

Boas relativism- Naos did not coin the term, cultural relativism– the term was later coined by one of his students, Robert Lowie

• Boas relativism came directly from his commitment to fieldwork 

• His study of the Baffin Island Inuit was convinced him that cultures could only be understood through extensive field research. Only ethnographic field research could give you enough data about how people love, and why they live as the do 

• Culture, he believed  

George stocking on the importance of Boas, his culture concept and cultural relativism: What did it mean for culture and civilization to be separated? Why didn't Boas do away with “civilization” altogether? 

The Reflexive Turn in Anthropology

Definition and Significance

The Reflexive Turn refers to a significant theoretical, methodological, and ethical shift in anthropology beginning in the 1970s. This period marked a critical self-examination by anthropologists regarding their own role, biases, and positionality in research. It challenged the assumption of complete objectivity and highlighted power dynamics in ethnographic studies.

Major Aspects of the Reflexive Turn

1. Researcher's Identity and Reflexivity

   • Anthropologists began analyzing how their gender, race, class, and background influence research.

   • Reflexivity involves actively critiquing biases, assumptions, and power dynamics during research.

2. Critique of Colonialism

   • Anthropology had historical ties to colonialism, where researchers often upheld Eurocentric perspectives.

   • The Reflexive Turn was influenced by postcolonial thought, questioning how power imbalances shaped knowledge production.

3. Impact on Ethnographic Writing

   • Anthropologists became more explicit about their own positionality and research processes.

   • Shifted focus from merely describing cultures to analyzing how knowledge about cultures is produced.

Key Thinkers and Works

• James Clifford

  • A historian of ideas, rather than a field anthropologist.

  • Critiqued traditional ethnographic methods by examining modern European intellectual history.

• George Marcus

  • Founded the Society for Cultural Anthropology and the journal Cultural Anthropology.

  • Criticized anthropologists for studying only marginalized groups while ignoring sites of power and influence (e.g., state power, global capitalism).

  • Proposed new research methods to analyze modern global structures.

The Influence of Writing Culture

• Writing Culture (1986), edited by James Clifford and George Marcus, was a landmark collection of essays that reshaped anthropology.

• It questioned ethnographic representation and the crisis of representation in anthropology.

Key Issues Raised by Writing Culture

• Who represents whom? How are cultures being portrayed, and for what purpose?

• Is ethnography objective or fictional? Anthropologists do not merely report on cultures; they also construct them through writing.

• How does writing shape cultural knowledge? The book shifted focus from fieldwork to the act of writing as a creative and interpretive process.

Clifford & Marcus’ Concept of "Partial Truths"

• Ethnographies do not present an objective reality but rather a subjective interpretation shaped by the anthropologist.

• Writing does not offer a transparent window into a culture but instead produces a constructed narrative.

Anthropology must acknowledge that its truths are always partial—influenced by historical, literary, and personal perspectives

Study Questions for Anthropology Material

1. What is Anthropology?

   • Define anthropology and its purpose in understanding societies.

2. Who was Herodotus, and why is he significant for anthropology?

   • Discuss Herodotus' contributions to historical and anthropological methodology.

3. Contrast the methodologies of Herodotus and Thucydides.

   • What were the key differences in their approaches to history?

4. Define Colonialism and distinguish it from Imperialism.

   • How do the definitions of these terms clarify their historical implications?

5. What are the types of colonial rule, and how do they differ?

   • Explain direct and indirect rule with examples.

6. How did the Age of Enlightenment influence anthropology?

   • Identify key philosophical shifts that shaped anthropological thinking during this period.

7. What is cultural evolution, and who were its key proponents?

   • Summarize the ideas of Spencer, Tylor, and Morgan regarding cultural progress.

8. What were Franz Boas' main arguments against cultural evolutionism?

   • How did he illustrate the concept of cultural relativism?

9. What is the Reflexive Turn in anthropology?

   • Discuss its significance and its impact on ethnographic research and representation.

10. How did the Dialectic of Enlightenment challenge Enlightenment ideals?

    • What were the central arguments presented by Adorno and Horkheimer?

These questions aim to facilitate comprehension and critical engagement with the material covered in the course.