YM

Hinduism: Teachings and Practices (Chapter 4)

Opening Narrative: Ganesha in Salt Lake Temple

  • Ganesha is worshipped in the sanctum of the Sri Ganesha Hindu Temple of Utah, where he is affectionately called “Uppu Vinayaka” or the “Salt” Ganesha by local devotees because deities are often tied to the land of worship.
  • Scene described: a spring morning in Salt Lake Valley; Indra Neelameggham and her husband Neale join a festive crowd carrying offerings (flowers, fresh fruits, coconuts).
  • Context: community efforts transformed a stark Utah region into a beautiful worship space; the temple’s opening rituals spanned three days, drawing nearly 1,000 visitors.
  • Icon transfer: a three-foot-tall Ganesha statue was moved from Indra’s house, where Ganesha stayed eight years during temple construction, to his new home in the temple.
  • Significance of Ganesha: elephant-headed god with four arms (often holding an axe, a noose, an elephant goad, and sometimes a bowl of sweets).
  • Symbolism of sweet bowl: represents benevolence and loving nature.
  • Rituals culminate in darshan: devotees see and are seen by the divine; participants feel the presence of a living being.
  • Ritual act foregrounds: Ganesha as patron of arts and sciences, wisdom, new beginnings, and commerce; especially venerated by students, writers, travelers, and businessmen.
  • Ganesha’s role at the start of new undertakings: invoked at the beginning of nearly all Hindu rituals.
  • Key temple moment: the divine gaze awakened and directed toward signs of good fortune (cow with calf, children, rice mounds, abundant food offerings).
  • Conclusion of opening moment: Indra and Neale experience reverence and a sense of building a community around Ganesha of Salt Lake.

Hinduism: Diversity, Foundations, and Timeline

  • Hinduism has no single founder or sacred book; it is characterized by continuity and change, with diverse beliefs, practices, and sects.
  • Debates about unity vs. plurality: some scholars view Hinduism as a constellation of many religious sects sharing common elements; others see enough shared beliefs to regard it as a single tradition.
  • The history of Hinduism in the Salt Lake Valley illustrates how a tradition transplanted from India adapts to new social and cultural contexts.
  • Timeline highlights (selected milestones and periods):
    • 2600-1700\text{ b.c.e.}: Indus Valley Civilization.
    • 2000-1300\text{ b.c.e.}: Migration of Indo-Aryans into Northwest India.
    • c. 1200\text{ b.c.e.}: Rig Veda.
    • c. 1200-900\text{ b.c.e.}: Later Vedas.
    • c. 900-200\text{ b.c.e.}: Upanishads.
    • 400\text{ b.c.e.-400\text{ c.e.}}: Mahabharata.
    • 200\text{ b.c.e.-200\text{ c.e.}}: Ramayana.
    • c. 1^{st}\text{ c.e.}: Bhagavad Gita.
    • 100-500\text{ c.e.}: Expansion of Hinduism into Southeast Asia.
    • 320-540\text{ c.e.}: Gupta Dynasty; rise of temple culture.
    • 300-500\text{ e.a.}: Earliest Puranas; Hindu law books.
    • 700\text{ a.d.}: Flourishing bhakti in the South.
    • 1398-1518\text{ c.e.}: Kabir, bhakti poet.
    • 1526-1757\text{ c.e.}: Mughal rule in India.
    • 1651\text{ a.d.}: East India Company opens first factory in Bengal.
    • 1786\text{ a.d.}: William Jones links Sanskrit with European languages.
    • 1828\text{ a.d.}: Brahmo Samaj founded by Ram Mohan Roy.
    • 1834-1886\text{ a.d.}: Sri Ramakrishna.
    • 1869-1948\text{ a.d.}: Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi.
    • 1875\text{ a.d.}: Arya Samaj founded by Dayananda Saraswati.
    • 1893\text{ a.d.}: Vivekananda at the World Parliament of Religions, Chicago.
    • 1925\text{ a.d.}: RSS founded.
    • 1947\text{ a.d.}: India gains independence; partition.
    • 1964\text{ a.d.}: VHP founded.
    • 1992\text{ a.d.}: Babri Masjid destruction and riots.
    • 2014\text{ a.d.}: BJP wins Indian elections in a landslide.

The Teachings of Hinduism: Core Concepts and Diversity

  • A. Divine Reality: monism vs. dualism
    • Monism: everything is ultimately one; all reality is Brahman (the ground of all being and knowledge).
    • Dualism (devotional Hinduism): divine reality as a personal God distinct from the world; devotion to God is central.
    • Both views often coexist in practice: many monists recognize deities as manifestations of Brahman; many dualists still use the term Brahman or Bhagavan for the divine reality.
  • B. Names and conceptual categories of the Divine
    • Brahman: the expansive, supreme unitary reality in monistic Hinduism.
    • God: a general term used by dualistic Hindus; may denote a universal being or a specific deity.
    • Bhagavan: vocable meaning “the Blessed One” or “Lord” (often used for Krishna, Vishnu, etc.).
    • Mataji, Mahadevi: titles for goddesses in goddess traditions.
    • Svami (Swami): honorific for a spiritual master or monk.
    • One Divine Reality, Many Gods: Brahman as the true reality behind many deities; deities are manifestations of the one.
  • C. Divine Reality as Sound
    • OM (AUM): a primordial cosmic sound composed of A, U, M; encompasses all words and things; linked to creation, preservation, and dissolution in some traditions.
    • Upanishads sometimes associate A, U, M with waking, dreaming, and deep sleep states, with AUM as the fourth state of consciousness (turiya).
    • In later Hinduism, the syllables are linked to gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva and their cosmic functions.
  • D. Image and symbol: God as image
    • Hinduism is imagistic in practice: images (murti) of gods are aids to contemplation and are believed to be infused with divine presence.
    • An image can be stationary in temples or bronze icons carried in processions; some households revere print or online images.
    • Images are not mere symbols but invoked as divine presence; worship centers on the belief that an image is God in a form suitable for devotion.
  • E. The Divine in Nature
    • God is present in nature; rivers, earth, mountains, sun, trees, and animals are revered as manifestations or sacred spaces.
    • Rivers (especially the Ganges) are worshipped as creative energy and as purifiers; bathing in rivers is seen as washing away sins.
    • Sacred mountains like Kailash (home of Shiva) invite pilgrimages; Kalidasa described the Himalayas as a devatatma (great spiritual presence).
    • Celestial bodies (sun, planets) personified as gods; Nataraja (Shiva as Lord of the Dance) represents creation, preservation, destruction, illusion, and liberation.
  • F. Avatars: divine descents into the world
    • Krishna and Rama are among Vishnu’s most popular avatars (incarnations of Vishnu).
    • Vishnu’s ten avatars: Rama (7th) and Krishna (8th) are central; Kalki (final avatar) is prophesied to come at the end of this age to restore dharma.
    • Bhagavad Gita presents Krishna as a manifestation of the supreme being; the text asserts that God descends to restore order when needed.
    • Key verse: Krishna’s self-description and mission (as cited in the Bhagavad Gita, 4:6-8).
  • G. The Individual and the Quest for Liberation
    • Atman: an eternal self or soul, not limited by the body; moves through successive lives; realization of the true nature is arduous and gradual.
    • Tat tvam asi (You are that): a famous Upanishadic teaching illustrating that atman is Brahman.
    • Karma: action and its consequences; actions shape current and future rebirths.
    • Dharma: law, duty, righteousness, and religious or social duties; reveals how to live in cosmic and social order.
    • Samsara: the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; the world is experienced as a cycle of evolving beings.
    • Moksha: liberation from samsara; realization of the true nature of the atman; for monists, moksha is the union of atman and Brahman; for dualists, eternal existence with God.
    • Rebirth and karma in practice: countless heavens and hells; rebirths can be long but are temporary; a human birth is highly valued for liberation opportunities.
  • H. The Three Margas (Paths to Moksha)
    • Karma Marga: duties and ethical actions aligned with dharma; detachment from the fruits of action; quoted from the Bhagavad Gita about purification of the self through disciplined action.
    • Bhakti Marga: path of devotion; most widely practiced; devotion to a deity (Krishna often highlighted in the Gita); the Gita extols bhakti as a means to liberation
    • Jnana Marga: path of knowledge and contemplation; emphasis on study of sacred texts and meditation; the Bhagavad Gita also presents wisdom and discernment as liberating.
    • The paths are not exclusive; Hindus often combine margas; bhakti, in particular, is central to many devotional practices and temple life.
    • Key Gita verse on bhakti and liberation (cite as Bhagavad Gita, ext{4:6-8}).

Vedanta and the Philosophical Schools

  • Vedanta: the end of the Vedas; the principal philosophical school that arises from the Upanishads; emphasizes interpretation of Brahman, atman, and the world.
  • Major Vedanta schools (three main):
    • Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism): Brahman is identical with atman; the world is maya (illusion); ignorance blinds discernment; liberation comes from realizing oneness with Brahman; developed by Shankara (8th century CE).
    • VishishtAdvaita (Qualified non-dualism): Brahman and the world are real; the world is the body of God; the individual souls are part of God; experience of forgetfulness explains ignorance; Ramanuja (12th century CE) emphasizes devotion to Vishnu.
    • Dvaita (Dualism): clear distinction between atman and Brahman; five aspects of difference; Madhva (13th century CE) emphasizes a permanent separation between soul and God; often linked to Vishnu worship.
  • Maya and epistemology
    • Advaita: world and multiplicity are due to maya, an illusion veiling true knowledge; through discernment, one realizes unity with Brahman, attaining moksha.
  • Interplay with devotion and practice
    • Vedanta influenced by devotional (bhakti) and sectarian currents; different sects interpret Vedanta to align with their devotional practices.

The Individual and Society: Dharma, Caste, and Life Stages

  • The varnashrama dharma framework combines social classes (varna) with life stages (ashrama).
  • The Caste System (Varna and Jati)
    • Varna: four main classes based on birth and social function:
    • Brahmin (priestly class)
    • Kshatriya (warrior/administrator)
    • Vaishya (producer: farmers/merchants)
    • Shudra (servant)
    • Endogamy and the idea of purity/pollution shape interactions; the Purusha Sukta from the Rig Veda describes the cosmic-man sacrifice from whose body the varnas emerge.
    • A fifth group, the Dalits (often called untouchables), exists outside the traditional four varnas; Gandhi’s Harijan effort and later renaming reflect social reform movements; today many dalits seek mobility through education and government programs, though oppression persists in many rural areas.
    • Jati: subcastes with endogamous rules; marriages within equal status jatis are common; cross-jati marriages have historically broadened alliances; caste status has become more fluid in urban contexts but remains a significant social factor.
  • The Four Ashramas (Stages of Life) 1) Brahmacharya (student) – focus on learning the Vedas and discipline. 2) Grihastha (householder) – married life, family duties, supporting others. 3) Vanaprastha (forest-dweller hermit) – withdraws from worldly obligations to seek moksha. 4) Sannyasa (renouncer) – complete renunciation; ascetic life; emphasis on meditation and yoga.
    • The Laws of Manu provide guidelines for initiation and duties in each stage.
    • The four stages are ideal for upper-caste men; women often participate in supporting roles, with texts highlighting honor for women’s roles, though patriarchy is a historical reality in many contexts.
  • The Four Aims of Life (Purusharthas)
    • Dharma: duty, righteousness, and social order.
    • Kama: sensual enjoyment and the human experience.
    • Artha: material wealth and social prestige.
    • Moksha: liberation and release from samsara.
    • Hindus are encouraged to pursue all four aims, with concessions to dharma guiding how kama and artha are pursued.

Hindu Sacred Texts: Shruti and Smriti; Epics and Puranas

  • Vedas (Shruti: “that which is heard”)
    • Four collections (Samhitas):
    • Rig Veda: hymns to the gods.
    • Sama Veda: melodic renditions of Rig hymns.
    • Yajur Veda: ritual formulas.
    • Atharva Veda: hymns, spells, incantations.
    • Brahmanas: priestly instructions for rituals.
    • Aranyakas: forest treatises bridging Samhitas to Upanishads; explore ritual meanings.
    • Upanishads (Vedanta): philosophical inquiries into the nature of the divine, self, world; foundational for Vedanta; discuss karma, samsara, reincarnation, and atman’s immortality; traditionally 108 Upanishads but many more texts exist.
    • The Upanishads shift focus from external ritual to inner knowledge and wisdom; they underpin later yogic and meditative traditions and influence the Bhagavad Gita.
  • Epics (Smriti: tradition, not shruti)
    • Ramayana: the journey of Rama; dharma as central theme; narrative of exile, loyalty, virtue, and the god-king mythos; Rama is an avatar of Vishnu; Sita is his wife and a model of fidelity.
    • Mahabharata: the longest epic poem; dynastic conflict between Pandavas and Kauravas; includes Krishna’s discourse to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita; themes of dharma, duty, and the tension between worldly life and renunciation.
    • Bhagavata Purana (and other Puranas): mythic, devotional literature focusing on Vishnu and avatars, with prominent tales of Krishna and other deities; devotional aspects become central in later Hindu practice.
  • Puranas
    • Narrative collections that elaborate on gods, temple rites, pilgrimages, festivals, genealogies, and local deities.
    • They reflect the rise of devotional (bhakti) Hinduism and provide guidance on temple worship and religious practice.
    • Two major Purana exemplars: Bhagavata Purana (Vishnu-centered, Krishna emphasis) and Markandeya Purana (including Devi Mahatmya, a key text for Shaktism).

Sects and Devotional Movements

  • Vaishnavism: devotion to Vishnu and Lakshmi; emphasizes Vishnu’s avatars (Rama, Krishna, etc.); bhakti to Vishnu is central; Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita are influential.
  • Shaivism: devotion to Shiva; a diverse family of traditions focusing on Shiva as supreme or a central deity in a broader framework.
  • Shaktism: devotion to Devi (the Great Goddess, Devi), emphasizing goddess-centered worship and theological models like Durga, Lakshmi, Saraswati.
  • Within each sect are numerous orders, saints, and devotional practices that define their texts, iconography, and ritual practices.

The Bhagavad Gita and the Synthesis of Hindu Thought

  • The Bhagavad Gita (The Song of the Lord) is a pivotal dialogue within the Mahabharata, dating to around the first century CE.
  • Core themes:
    • Reconciliation of action in the world with spiritual liberation; one does not need to renounce action to attain moksha, but one should act without attachment to results (desireless action).
    • Emphasis on bhakti (devotion) as a legitimate and powerful path to liberation; Krishna presents bhakti as open to all, regardless of caste or gender.
    • The Gita articulates all three margas (paths) as compatible: karma marga, bhakti marga, and jnana marga (as discussed above).
  • Key verse reference for bhakti and action: Bhagavad Gita, 4:6-8 (Krishna explains his descent and his role in restoring dharma). The passage highlights Krishna’s assertion of divine intervention and the universality of the bhakti path.

The Pathways to Liberation: Karma, Bhakti, and Jnana Marga

  • Karma Marga (path of action): action aligned with dharma, performed with detachment from outcomes; purification of the self via disciplined, selfless duties.
  • Bhakti Marga (path of devotion): love and devotion to a personal deity; emphasizes relationship with the divine and ritual practices (temple worship, festivals, and daily puja).
  • Jnana Marga (path of knowledge): contemplation, study, meditation, and discernment; aims to realize the true nature of the self and Brahman (the ultimate reality).
  • All three margas serve to diminish ignorance and egoistic attachment; many Hindus practice combinations of margas in daily life.

Key Philosophical Foundations: Vedanta and Major Schools

  • Vedanta: a family of philosophical interpretations arising from the Upanishads; focuses on the nature of Brahman, atman, and their relationship to the world.
  • The three major Vedanta schools:
    • Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism): Brahman and atman are identical; the world is maya (illusion); realization of unity yields moksha; most associated with Shankara.
    • VishishtAdvaita (Qualified non-dualism): Brahman and the world are real; the world is the body of God; the individual souls are part of God; devotion to Vishnu as the supreme form of Brahman; Ramanuja.
    • Dvaita (Dualism): clear ontological distinction between Brahman and atman; ultimate difference exists between souls and God; associated with Madhva and Vaishnavism.

The Individual, Samsara, and Liberation: Karma, Dharma, and Moksha

  • Samsara: the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; the atman moves from one body to another; driven by karma.
  • Karma: action and its consequences; good actions yield favorable rebirths, while bad actions yield less favorable ones; current life shaped by past actions.
  • Dharma: duty and righteousness; upholding cosmic and social order; defined by sacred texts (e.g., Laws of Manu) and epic narratives (Ramayana, Mahabharata).
  • Moksha: liberation from samsara; realization of the true nature of the self; for monists, unity with Brahman; for dualists, eternal life with God.
  • The concept of maya (illusion) as a key debate in Vedanta contexts; maya can veil discernment, keeping the practitioner bound in samsara.

The Divine in Nature and the Sacred Landscape

  • Sacredness of rivers, mountains, trees, and animals; rivers as purifiers and gateways between divine and earthly realms.
  • Kalidasa’s Himalayas as a spiritual space; Kailasa as the home of Shiva and a site of pilgrimage rituals (circumambulation).
  • The sun, planets, and cosmic order personified as deities; the cosmos as a field of divine activity and symbolized by cosmic dances (Nataraja).
  • The cow’s sacred status in Hindu society; cows as symbols of life-sustaining compassion and a motherly role due to milk production.
  • The Pipal tree and other sacred sites connected to deities and enlightened beings.

Sacred Texts: Transmission, Authority, and Function

  • Shruti vs. Smriti
    • Shruti: heard or revealed texts (Vedas and Upanishads);
    • Smriti: traditional texts (epics, Puranas, Laws of Manu) that guide social practice.
  • The Vedas and associated literature
    • Vedas (Samhitas): Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas.
    • Brahmanas: ritual manuals for priests.
    • Aranyakas: forest treatises bridging the Vedic ritual texts to philosophical inquiries.
    • Upanishads: philosophical reflections on the nature of Brahman, atman, and the cosmos; foundational for Vedanta; introduction of karma, samsara, and moksha concepts.
  • Epics and Puranas
    • Ramayana and Mahabharata: epic narratives central to dharma and social ethics; stories provide exemplary models for virtue and duty.
    • Bhagavata Purana and Markandeya Purana: devotional Puranas that emphasize Vishnu and Devi; devotee-centered narratives and temple practices.
  • The Sects and Their Sacred Texts
    • Vaishnavism emphasizes Vishnu and his avatars (Rama, Krishna, etc.); devotional literature and temple rituals.
    • Shaivism emphasizes Shiva-centric worship with diverse scriptures and temple traditions.
    • Shaktism emphasizes the Goddess (Devi) as the supreme divine reality with mythic narratives and temple rites.

The Gita, Puranas, and Devotional Traditions in Practice

  • The Bhagavad Gita as a synthesis of philosophy and practice
    • Treats dharma (duty) within the context of familial and social responsibilities in the battlefield narrative of the Mahabharata.
    • Introduces the concept of detachment from the fruits of action as essential to liberation (yoga).
    • Endorses bhakti as a path accessible to all, not restricted by caste or gender context.
  • Devotional traditions and temple life
    • Bhakti becomes a central religious impulse; devotion to a personal deity shapes worship, festivals, and temple culture.
    • The choice of a personal deity (Krishna, Shiva, Devi, etc.) often reflects individual temperament and family tradition.

Voices and Real-world Dimensions: Ethics, Ecology, and Reform

  • Voices from practitioners reveal a lived Hinduism that emphasizes compassion, nonviolence, and the belief that work can be an act of worship (work as worship).
  • Environmental awareness and sacred ecology
    • Hindu beliefs about the divinity of nature inspire some advocates to promote ecological responsibility and environmental ethics, recognizing rivers, mountains, and forests as sacred spaces.
  • Social reform and caste dynamics
    • Reform movements (e.g., Gandhi’s Harijan / dalit upliftment) sought to address caste-based inequities and promote education and social mobility.
  • Modern diaspora and globalization
    • Hindu communities abroad (e.g., Salt Lake City temple) illustrate how Hinduism adapts to new geographies while maintaining core beliefs and practices.

Quick Reference: Key Terms and Concepts

  • Darshan: seeing and being seen by the divine; a central devotional moment in worship.
  • Atman: the eternal self or soul; moves through reincarnation until realization.
  • Brahman: the ultimate, infinite, undivided reality (monism).
  • Moksha: liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering.
  • Dharma: duty, righteousness, and cosmic/social order.
  • Samsara: the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
  • Karma: action and its consequences.
  • Maya: illusion or experiential reality affecting discernment and perception.
  • OM (AUM): primordial sound symbolizing the divine and the universe.
  • Tat tvam asi: “You are that”; a central Upanishadic teaching about the unity of self and Brahman.
  • Varna: caste categories; four main classes (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra).
  • Jati: subcastes; endogamous groupings within the caste system.
  • Ashrama: four stages of life (student, householder, forest-dweller, renouncer).
  • Margas (yogas): Karma Marga, Bhakti Marga, Jnana Marga; paths to moksha.
  • Upanishads: philosophical texts that articulate key Hindu notions of karma, samsara, and moksha; foundational for Vedanta.
  • Advaita Vedanta: non-dualism; Brahman equals atman; world is maya.
  • VishishtAdvaita: qualified non-dualism; world is God’s body; souls depend on God.
  • Dvaita: dualism; permanent distinction between soul and God.
  • Gita quotes: key formulations such as Bhagavad Gita, 4:6-8 and the call to detachment in action.

If you’d like, I can tailor these notes to a specific exam focus (e.g., more emphasis on Vedanta, or on social structures like varna and ashrama) or add a condensed glossary at the end.