AMH2020

Compromise of 1877

• Historical Context: Resolved the contested U.S. presidential election of 1876 between Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) and Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat).

• Historical Significance: Marked the end of Reconstruction as federal troops were withdrawn from the South, leading to the resurgence of white supremacist policies and the disenfranchisement of Black Americans.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

• Historical Context: U.S. Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine.

• Historical Significance: Legitimized Jim Crow laws, reinforcing institutionalized racism and segregation in the South until its overturning in Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

13th Amendment (1865)

• Historical Context: Ratified after the Civil War as part of the Reconstruction Amendments.

• Historical Significance: Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the U.S., except as punishment for a crime, leading to exploitative systems like convict leasing.

14th Amendment (1868)

• Historical Context: Ratified during Reconstruction to address citizenship and civil rights issues post-Civil War.

• Historical Significance: Granted birthright citizenship and equal protection under the law, later serving as a foundation for civil rights movements and legal battles against discrimination.

15th Amendment (1870)

• Historical Context: Enacted to extend voting rights to Black men following the Civil War.

• Historical Significance: Prohibited racial discrimination in voting, though Southern states later undermined it through poll taxes, literacy tests, and other voter suppression tactics.

New South

• Historical Context: A post-Reconstruction ideology advocating for economic modernization and industrialization in the Southern U.S.

• Historical Significance: Aimed to diversify the Southern economy, but largely maintained racial segregation and an exploitative labor system, particularly targeting Black workers.

Convict Leasing

• Historical Context: A post-Civil War system in which Southern states leased incarcerated individuals—often Black men convicted under discriminatory laws—to private businesses.

• Historical Significance: Functioned as a new form of forced labor and racial oppression, sustaining economic exploitation and reinforcing racial hierarchies.

The Readjuster Party (1870s–1880s)

• Historical Context: A biracial political coalition in Virginia that sought to reduce state debt and increase public services, including education.

• Historical Significance: Temporarily disrupted white Democratic control and promoted racial progress, but ultimately declined due to white supremacist backlash and Democratic Party consolidation.

Transcontinental Railroad (1869)

• Historical Context: Completed with the joining of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads at Promontory Point, Utah.

• Historical Significance: Connected the East and West coasts, accelerating economic growth, westward expansion, and migration while also contributing to the decline of Indigenous cultures and land dispossession.

Gilded Age (1870s–1900)

• Historical Context: A period of rapid industrialization, economic growth, and political corruption in the U.S.

• Historical Significance: Marked by vast wealth disparities, the rise of monopolies, labor unrest, and the emergence of political machines, leading to later Progressive Era reforms.

John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937)

• Historical Context: Founder of Standard Oil, which became the largest monopoly in the U.S. during the late 19th century.

• Historical Significance: Pioneered modern business practices such as vertical and horizontal integration, amassed great wealth, and later became a major philanthropist, influencing industry regulations and antitrust laws.

Bessemer Process (1856)

• Historical Context: Invented by Henry Bessemer, this process allowed for the mass production of steel by removing impurities from iron more efficiently.

• Historical Significance: Revolutionized the steel industry, enabling the construction of railroads, skyscrapers, and bridges, fueling urbanization and industrialization.

Haymarket Riot (1886)

• Historical Context: A labor protest in Chicago advocating for an eight-hour workday that turned violent after a bomb exploded, leading to police retaliation.

• Historical Significance: Increased tensions between labor unions and law enforcement, weakened the labor movement due to its association with anarchism, and led to May Day becoming an international workers’ holiday.

Homestead Strike (1892)

• Historical Context: A violent labor dispute at Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Plant in Pennsylvania, where striking workers clashed with private security (Pinkertons).

• Historical Significance: Exposed the harsh conditions faced by industrial workers, weakened the power of labor unions, and marked a significant defeat for organized labor against big business.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

• Historical Context: A nationwide strike sparked by wage cuts for railroad workers, leading to violent clashes and federal military intervention.

• Historical Significance: First major nationwide labor conflict in U.S. history, highlighting the growing tensions between labor and industry, and prompting future labor organization efforts.

Great Migration (1916–1970)

• Historical Context: The mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West, primarily due to racial violence, Jim Crow laws, and economic opportunities.

• Historical Significance: Transformed American cities, contributed to the Harlem Renaissance and Black political activism, and reshaped racial dynamics in the U.S., leading to both cultural flourishing and new forms of segregation.

Jacob Riis (1849–1914)

• Historical Context: A Danish-American journalist and photographer who documented the living conditions of poor immigrants in New York City during the late 19th century.

• Historical Significance: His book How the Other Half Lives (1890) exposed urban poverty and tenement housing conditions, influencing Progressive Era reforms in housing and labor laws.

Ida B. Wells (1862–1931)

• Historical Context: African American journalist, activist, and educator who led an anti-lynching campaign in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• Historical Significance: Her investigative journalism exposed the widespread practice of lynching in the South, and she co-founded the NAACP, advocating for civil rights and women’s suffrage.

Knights of Labor (Founded 1869)

• Historical Context: One of the first major labor unions in the U.S., advocating for workers' rights, including an eight-hour workday, equal pay for women, and the abolition of child labor.

• Historical Significance: Unlike other labor organizations, it included both skilled and unskilled workers, as well as women and Black workers, but declined after the Haymarket Riot (1886) due to its association with radicalism.

International Workers Association (First International, 1864–1876)

• Historical Context: A global labor organization that aimed to unite workers across national borders to fight for labor rights and socialism.

• Historical Significance: Played a key role in early socialist and anarchist movements, influencing future labor struggles and international cooperation among workers, despite internal ideological conflicts.

Booker T. Washington (1856–1915)

• Historical Context: Prominent African American educator and leader who advocated for racial uplift through vocational training and economic self-sufficiency.

• Historical Significance: Founded the Tuskegee Institute and promoted a gradual approach to racial equality, urging Black Americans to focus on economic success rather than immediate civil rights, a stance that was later criticized by more radical activists.

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963)

• Historical Context: African American scholar, activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, who opposed Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist approach.

• Historical Significance: Advocated for immediate civil rights, higher education for Black Americans (the "Talented Tenth"), and fought against racial discrimination through activism and scholarly work, shaping the early civil rights movement.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

• Historical Context: The first federal law passed in the U.S. to curb monopolies and regulate big business.

• Historical Significance: Initially weakly enforced, it was later used to break up major monopolies like Standard Oil (1911) and laid the foundation for future antitrust legislation aimed at preventing corporate abuses and maintaining competition.

Morrill Act (1862 & 1890)

• Historical Context: Signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, it provided federal land grants to states to fund the establishment of public universities specializing in agriculture, engineering, and military training. A second act in 1890 extended funding to Black colleges.

• Historical Significance: Led to the creation of land-grant universities, expanding access to higher education and contributing to agricultural and industrial advancements in the U.S.

Homestead Act (1862)

• Historical Context: Passed during the Civil War, it granted 160 acres of public land to settlers who agreed to farm and improve the land for at least five years.

• Historical Significance: Encouraged westward expansion and agricultural development but also led to conflicts with Indigenous peoples as settlers encroached on Native lands.

George Custer (1839–1876)

• Historical Context: U.S. Army officer and cavalry commander known for his role in the Indian Wars, particularly in the Great Plains.

• Historical Significance: Led U.S. forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), where he and his troops were killed by Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors, marking a major but temporary Native American victory.

Ghost Dance (Late 19th Century)

• Historical Context: A religious movement among Native American tribes, particularly the Lakota, inspired by the prophet Wovoka, which sought to restore Indigenous lands and ways of life.

• Historical Significance: Seen as a threat by U.S. authorities, it contributed to heightened tensions leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.

Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)

• Historical Context: U.S. Army troops killed around 250–300 Lakota men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota during an attempt to suppress the Ghost Dance movement.

• Historical Significance: Marked the tragic end of Native American armed resistance to U.S. expansion and symbolized the brutal suppression of Indigenous culture and sovereignty.

Wovoka (c. 1856–1932)

• Historical Context: A Paiute prophet who founded the Ghost Dance movement in the late 19th century, claiming that performing the dance would restore Native lands and remove white settlers.

• Historical Significance: His teachings spread among Plains tribes, giving Indigenous peoples hope for spiritual and cultural revival but also provoking U.S. military action that led to the Wounded Knee Massacre.

Dawes Act (1887)

• Historical Context: U.S. law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual allotments and selling surplus land to white settlers.

• Historical Significance: Undermined tribal sovereignty, resulted in significant loss of Native land (over 90 million acres), and disrupted traditional Indigenous ways of life, contributing to long-term economic and social hardships.

Comstock Lode (1859)

• Historical Context: A massive silver deposit discovered in Nevada, leading to a mining boom in the late 19th century.

• Historical Significance: Fueled westward expansion, brought great wealth to the U.S. economy, and contributed to Nevada’s statehood, but also led to labor exploitation and environmental degradation.

Ludlow Massacre (1914)

• Historical Context: A violent attack by the Colorado National Guard and private security forces on striking coal miners and their families in Ludlow, Colorado.

• Historical Significance: Resulted in the deaths of women and children, sparking national outrage and highlighting the brutal conditions faced by industrial workers, leading to later labor reforms.

Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

• Historical Context: An extension of the Monroe Doctrine by President Theodore Roosevelt, asserting the U.S.'s right to intervene in Latin American affairs to maintain stability.

• Historical Significance: Justified U.S. military interventions in Latin America and reinforced American imperialism, laying the groundwork for future U.S. foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere.

U.S.S. Maine (1898)

• Historical Context: A U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor, Cuba, amid tensions between the U.S. and Spain.

• Historical Significance: The explosion (likely accidental but blamed on Spain) was a catalyst for the Spanish-American War, fueling U.S. expansionism and intervention in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907–1908)

• Historical Context: An informal agreement between the U.S. and Japan, in which Japan limited emigration to the U.S., and the U.S. reduced discrimination against Japanese immigrants.

• Historical Significance: Reflected rising anti-Asian sentiment in the U.S. while maintaining diplomatic relations with Japan, setting the stage for later immigration restrictions such as the Immigration Act of 1924.

Farmer’s Alliance (1870s–1890s)

• Historical Context: A coalition of agrarian groups advocating for economic reforms to help struggling farmers.

• Historical Significance: Laid the foundation for the Populist movement, pushing for policies like railroad regulation, inflationary monetary policies, and cooperative farming efforts.

Ocala Demands (1890)

• Historical Context: A political platform adopted by the National Farmers’ Alliance in Ocala, Florida, outlining key economic and political reforms.

• Historical Significance: Called for the direct election of senators, lower tariffs, a sub-treasury system, and regulation of banks and railroads, influencing later Populist and Progressive policies.

William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925)

• Historical Context: A Democratic and Populist leader who championed free silver, government regulation of big business, and anti-imperialism.

• Historical Significance: Gained national prominence through his “Cross of Gold” speech (1896), ran for president three times, and later influenced Progressive policies, including in his role as Secretary of State.

“Square Deal” (Theodore Roosevelt, 1901–1909)

• Historical Context: President Theodore Roosevelt’s domestic policy focused on consumer protection, labor rights, and regulation of big business.

• Historical Significance: Marked a shift in government intervention to balance the interests of workers, businesses, and consumers, laying the groundwork for Progressive reforms and trust-busting policies.

Niagara Movement (1905–1909)

• Historical Context: A Black civil rights organization founded by W.E.B. Du Bois and other activists as a response to Booker T. Washington’s more gradualist approach to racial equality.

• Historical Significance: Advocated for immediate civil rights, political representation, and an end to segregation and disenfranchisement. It laid the groundwork for the NAACP, which became a leading force in the civil rights movement.

Muller v. Oregon (1908)

• Historical Context: A U.S. Supreme Court case that upheld an Oregon law limiting women’s work hours to 10 per day, based on the argument that excessive work harmed women’s health.

• Historical Significance: Strengthened labor protections but reinforced gender-based discrimination, as the ruling was based on the idea that women were weaker and needed special protection, limiting their economic opportunities.

Gavrilo Princip (1894–1918)

• Historical Context: A Bosnian Serb nationalist and member of the Black Hand organization who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on June 28, 1914.

• Historical Significance: His assassination directly triggered World War I, as Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, setting off a chain reaction of alliances that escalated into a global conflict.

Battle of Tannenberg (1914)

• Historical Context: A major battle during the early stages of World War I between Germany and Russia on the Eastern Front, fought in East Prussia (modern Poland).

• Historical Significance: A decisive German victory that destroyed the Russian Second Army, boosted German morale, and established Germany’s dominance on the Eastern Front early in the war.

Preparedness Movement (1914–1917)

• Historical Context: A campaign in the U.S. before its entry into World War I, advocating for military buildup and training in anticipation of possible involvement in the war.

• Historical Significance: Led to the passage of the National Defense Act (1916) and expansion of the U.S. military, laying the foundation for America’s eventual intervention in World War I.

Henry Johnson (1892–1929)

• Historical Context: An African American soldier in the Harlem Hellfighters (369th Infantry Regiment) during World War I, who fought heroically in combat against German forces in France.

• Historical Significance: Became a symbol of Black valor and bravery, receiving the French Croix de Guerre for his service. However, he faced racial discrimination upon returning to the U.S. and was only posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor in 2015.

Food Administration (1917–1919)

• Historical Context: A U.S. government agency led by Herbert Hoover during World War I, responsible for managing food production, distribution, and conservation.

• Historical Significance: Successfully increased food supplies for troops and allies through voluntary programs like "Meatless Mondays" and "Wheatless Wednesdays." It demonstrated the power of federal mobilization during wartime and helped shape later government policies on resource management.