Untitled Flashcards Set

Moments in American Police History, the first American police officer. Received no training, patrolled on foot, had no two-way radio, could not be dispatched through a 911 system, and carried no weapon. Received no formal preservice training and had no manual of policies or procedures. The police officer in 1950. Was definitely male, nurses female, school teachers female etc. Received police academy training in some departments, but never any in-service training. Post 2nd World War all military trained. In the 1960’s great deal of in-service training. Creation of the Modern Police: London, 1829, Robert Peel is the “father” of modern policing. He fought for more than 30 years to improve law enforcement. By the early 1800s, the old system of law enforcement collapsed under the impact of urbanization and industrialization. Peel persuaded Parliament to create the London Metropolitan Police in 1829. It is recognized as the first modern police force. Officers are still known as “Bobbies” in honor of Peel. The great innovation of Peel’s new police was its mission of crime prevention. Law Enforcement in Colonial America, Law enforcement institutions in colonial America. The First Modern American Police, Established in the United States in the 1830s and 1840s. The officers did not wear uniforms or carry weapons. Americans borrowed most of the features of modern policing from London. The mission of crime prevention. The strategy of visible patrol over fixed beats. The quasi-military organizational structure. Officers get abandoned children off streets Currently primary goal is in partnership with communityThe three important institutions were the sheriff, the constable, and the watch. The watch The quality of colonial law enforcement. Inefficient, and affected by political interference. Work for politician who gave them the job The sheriff, the constable, and the watch had little capacity to prevent crime. Colonial agencies were ill-equipped to maintain order. Ordinary citizens maintained order through informal social control. Law Enforcement in Colonial America, Law enforcement institutions in colonial America. The three important institutions were the sheriff, the constable, and the watch. The watch The quality of colonial law enforcement. Inefficient, and affected by political interference. Work for politician who gave them the job The sheriff, the constable, and the watch had little capacity to prevent crime. Colonial agencies were ill-equipped to maintain order. Ordinary citizens maintained order through informal social control. The First Modern American Police, Established in the United States in the 1830s and 1840s. The officers did not wear uniforms or carry weapons. Americans borrowed most of the features of modern policing from London. The mission of crime prevention. The strategy of visible patrol over fixed beats. The quasi-military organizational structure. Officers get abandoned children off streets Currently primary goal is in partnership with community The “Political Era” in American Policing, 1830s to 1900, The period from the 1830s to 1900 is often called the “political era.” Police departments lacked personnel standards. Officers were selected on the basis of their political connections. Men with no formal education, those in bad health, and those with criminal records were hired. Recruits received no formal preservice training. Police officers had no job security and could be fired at will. Jobs on the police force were a major form of patronage, which local politicians used to reward their friends.Patrol work. Hopelessly inefficient (no technology) Officers patrolled on foot and were spread very thin. In many cities, entire areas were not patrolled at all. No patrol cars. Supervision was weak or nonexistent. First primitive communications systems involved a network of call boxes. The police and the public. Very few police officers. Citizens were often disrespectful to the officers they encountered. Policing was highly impersonal and marked by police–citizen conflict. Wilbur Miller argued that the London police became highly sensitive l, while the American police dealt with hate and violence.. (Irish) Corruption and politics. Police corruption was occurred in the nineteenth century. Corruption was one of the main functions of local government, and the police had to cope with it. Some police took payoffs for not enforcing laws on drinking, gambling, and prostitution. Some officers reportedly paid for promotion. Immigration, discrimination, and police corruption. Cultural conflict over religious holidays was at the heart of arbitrary enforcement of the laws, and deeper ethnic and religious conflict in city politics. Orphan trains Migrants today The failure of police reform. Reformers failed to improve the quality of policing. They had no vision of how a police department might be better organized and managed. They did not have any new ideas about police administration. They did not make any lasting changes in recruitment standards, training, or supervision. Theodore Roosevelt was appointed one of the four commissioners of the police in 1895. For two years he conducted a flamboyant campaign to clean up the police department. The impact of the police on crime and disorder. Growth of order was primarily a result of a natural adaptation to urban life. Police played a supporting role. Their impact on crime was small at first. The Professional Era, 1900 to 1960, The police professionalization movement. August Vollmer is the father of American police professionalism. Police reform was part of a much broader political movement known as progressivism between 1900 and 1917. Vollmer defined the reform agenda that continues to influence policing today. The reform agenda of the professionalization movement. Define policing as a profession. Eliminate political influence from policing. Appoint qualified chief executives. Raise personnel standards. Introduce principles of modern management. Create specialized units. Devoted to traffic, juveniles, and vice. Juvenile units led to a historic innovation, the first female sworn officers. (juveniles and search) Alice Stebbins Wells became the leader of the policewomen’s movement. The achievements of professionalization. By 1920, police departments in Milwaukee, Cincinnati, and Berkeley had emerged as leaders in the field. The professionalization movement reformers achieved some important successes. Adverse impacts of professionalization. The command system became far more centralized and authoritarian. Reformers placed all their hopes on strong police chiefs. (debate) Rank and file police officers retreated into an isolated and alienated police subculture. Sub Districts Us/Them FOP Police demanded better salaries and a voice in decisions affecting their jobs. This set the stage for the 1919 Boston police strike, one of the most famous events in police history. New law enforcement regulations Can’t Strike (Boston 1919) Blue Flu The Technological Revolution in Policing, Patrol car. First appeared just before the First World War and by the 1920s was in widespread use across the country. Made patrol coverage efficient and effective. Two-way radio. Allowed departments to dispatch officers in response to citizen calls for service. Allowed constant supervision of patrol officers. White Plaines, NY to Providence, RI Telephone. Allowed citizens to easily call the police. New Directions in Police Administration, 1930 to 1960, The Wickersham Commission. Created by President Herbert Hoover in 1929 to study a wide range of issues in the American criminal justice system. Professionalization. California police departments took the lead in professionalization from the 1920s through the 1960s. O. W. Wilson. Major contribution to police management involved the efficient management of personnel, particularly patrol officers. The 1943 Los Angeles riot brought attention to growing conflict between the police and the Latino community. It was referred to as the Zoot Suit Riot. J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Bureau of Investigation. Cleaned up the scandal-ridden bureau after being appointed in 1924. In the early 1930s, he underwent a dramatic transformation. He became manipulative and misused his power. The Police Crises of the 1960s, The police and the supreme court. The Miranda decision. The Supreme Court established constitutional standards for the police and for other parts of the criminal justice system. Supreme Court’s decisions. Provoked police departments to develop new training and supervision procedures for officers. Prompted law enforcement leaders to develop a system of accreditation for agencies. Tensions between the police and the African American community escalated in the early 1960s. An African American, was shot and killed by a white off-duty New York City police officer. The ensuing riot became known as the “long hot summers.” The Kerner Commission was appointed to study the riots and make recommendations for reform. President’s Crime Commission conducted a comprehensive study of the entire criminal justice system. Research revolution. Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment (1972 to 1973) tested the effect of different levels of patrol on crime. Crime Data UCR NCVS NIBRS New Developments in Policing, 1970 to Present, Percentage of Hispanic police officers across the country also increased. Traditional barriers to women in policing collapsed under the impact of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Administrative rulemaking model. The basis for the new rules on the use of deadly force. Police unions spread rapidly in the 1960s and by the 1970s. Advent of community policing (C O P) and problem-oriented policing (P O P). Early intervention system. A computer-based system for police accountability. Racial profiling. Police stopped vehicles based on “beat” crime, individuals know in the neighborhood. The National Police Crisis, 2014 to Present , President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. Created by President Barack Obama in late 2014. Emphasized legitimacy and procedural justice. Attorney General Jeff Sessions. Canceled the Justice Department’s “pattern or practice” program. The National Police Crisis. Brought new public scrutiny of police unions and their role in inhibiting police accountability. Stimulated an unprecedented wave of accountability-related reform on the part of state legislatures and city councils. 2015 to 2016. State legislatures and the District of Columbia passed a total of 79 laws. The laws covered a wide range of police issues. Police Executive Research Forum (PERF). Issued a series of reports on a wide range of issues that included de-escalation, police training, constitutional policing, and police use of force. The reports were a good indicator of reforms that were currently taking place in American policing. The tragic developments in the Ferguson event created a national crisis over policing and race relations. The National Police Crisis. Supported an enormous burst of police reform legislation. Heightened the awareness of how nominally race-neutral crime-fighting policies can result in significant racial disparities. The tragic developments in the Ferguson event created a national crisis over policing and race relations. The tragic developments in the Ferguson event created a national crisis over policing and race relations. The tragic developments in the Ferguson event created a national crisis over policing and race relations. DEMOGRAPHY FERTILITY - 14 PER THOUSAND MORTALITY - 10 PER THOUSAND MIGRATION - 570k LEGAL - 100-300K ILLEGAL 1996 BABYBOOMERS HIT 50YRS OF AGE 76 MILLION BABYBOOMERS 2020 WILL BE 1:5 OVER 55YRS OF AGE MELTING POT, ?REACHED ITS BOILING POINT MOSAIC (America 6) PATCHWORK QUILT RAGOUT BIFURCATED SOCIETY, MORE RICH MORE POOR IMMIGRATION WIDER GAP MIDDLE CLASS SLIDE UNEMPLOYMENT RATE 11% HEALTHCARE EDUCATION FAMILY (truck 4) ECONOMY SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS POLICE COURTS PRISON CHANGING OFFICER, WOMEN AND MINORITIES EDUCATED & EDUCABLE COLLEGE REQUIREMENT ? DOES THIS PRECLUDE ANYONE INTEREST NOT SALARY TRADITIONAL RESPONSIBILITY, MAINTAIN PUBLIC ORDER (4) ENFORCE CRIMINAL & TRAFFIC LAW PREVENT AND DETER CRIME APPREHEND & ARREST SUSPECTS (Peel) RESPONSIBILITY CONT., WORK WITH COMMUNITY LEADERS DIVERT JUVENILES DIVERT SUBSTANCE DRUNK DRIVERS DRUG DEALERS DARE (funding 2) FAMILY CONFLICT (NEWPORT) SOCIAL SERVICE AGENCIES CHANGING POLICE BUREAUCRACY, SIR ROBERT PEEL POLICE MILITARY AGENCY CONTEMPORARY CHANGE FEELINGS TOWARD POLICE COMMUNITY POLICING BUREAUCRACY, GROUNDED IN RULES HIERARCHY OF AUTHORITY AND POWER NO DISCRETION IF FACED WITH DECISION FIND A RULE IF NO RULE EXISTS MAKE ONE CALEA, COMMISSION ON ACCREDITION FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES STRENGTHEN CRIME PREVENTION FORMAIIZE MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES NONDISCRIMINATORY PERSONNEL PRACTICES IMPROVE SERVICE INTERAGENCY COOPERATION/COORDINATION INCREASE COMMUNITY/STAFF CONFIDENCE VALUES, EQUALITY EXCELLENCE ASSIMILATION FAIRNESS MISSION & STATEMENT, MISSION CORROSPOND TO SET OF VALUES VALUES DICTATED BY TYPE OF COMMUNITY AGENCY’S REASON FOR EXISTENCE GE “WE BRING GOOD THINGS TO LIFE” NY TIMES “ALL THE NEWS THAT’S FIT TO PRINT” ZENITH “ THE QUALITY GOES IN BEFORE THE NAME GOES ON” POLICE “TO SERVE AND PROTECT” GOALS (VISION), LONG RANGE AND BROAD ONGOING IMPROVE QUALITY OF LIFE PRESERVE PEACE PREVENT CRIME ENFORCE LAW PROVIDE SERVICES OBJECTIVES (TASKS), ADVANCE AGENCY TOWARD GOALS SPECIFIC SHORT-TERM AND MEASURABLE PRESERVE PEACE PATROL ENFORCE LAW TRAFFIC VIOLATIONS GOALS/OBJECTIVES, VISION/TASK WILL/SKILL VISION WITHOUT TASK IS DREAM TASK WITHOUT VISION IS DRUDGERY VISION WITH TASK IS HOPE OF THE WORLD EX. POLICE WITH DRUG ARREST INCONVENIENCE SAVING CHILDREN SAVING COMMUNITY POLICIES, GUIDES ATTAINMENT OF GOALS & OBJECTIVES A STATEMENT THAT GUIDES CONDUCT CONTROL AND ACCOUNTABILITY EX. ADMINISTRATIVE COMMUNITY RELATIONS PUBLIC AND PRESS RELEASE PERSONAL CONDUCT OF POLICE POLICY PROCESS (MIRANDA), IDENTIFICATION OF NEED FOR POLICY REFERRED BY CHIEF TO PLANNING/RESEARCH REFER FINDINGS TO STAFF CONSULT WITH POLITICAL EXECUTIVE PROMULGATION OF POLICY EXECUTION OF POLICY BY PERSONNEL EVALUATION OF POLICY EFFECTIVENESS PROCEDURES, GUIDE CONDUCT METHOD OF CARRYING OUT POLICIES EX GIVE POLICE OFFICERS CARD RIGHT REMAIN SILENT ANYTHING SAID HELD AGAINST YOU RIGHT TO ATTORNEY CAN’T AFFORD/ONE PROVIDED DO YOU UNDERSTAND RIGHTS? REGULATIONS, RULES GOVERNING POLICE BEHAVIOR CODE OF CONDUCT ELIMINATES DISCRETION IN CERTAIN AREAS REDUCES AMBIGUITY EX. ALL OFFICERS TRANSPORTING SUSPECTS INFORM OF MIRANDA GENERAL ORDERS, ANNOUNCE CHANGES IF POLICIES, PROCEDURES OR REGULATIONS EX. NO LONGER INFORM MIRANDA VA, WEST VA, CAROLINAS OFFICERS SIGN READ/UNDERSTAND GUIDE FOR WRITING,GOALS, POLICIES, PROCEDURES SIMPLE SHORT USE LISTS USE ILLUSTRATIONS DEPARTMENTAL RULES, DON’T BE RULE BOUND LIKE MUSCLEBOUND LACK FLEXIBILITY STIFLES CREATIVITY-DISCRETION MUST HAVE SOME LEWAY DISCRETION, ABILITY TO MAKE OWN DECISIONS ARREST/NOT ARREST CHARGE/NOT CHARGE EXTENUATING.CIRCUMSTANCES SPEEDING-GOING TO HOSPITAL POLICE WROTE UP PREGNANT WOMAN LAW MAY BE BETTER SERVED DRUNK DRIVING- CAUGHT INFRONT OF HIS HOUSE ETHICAL PROBLEMS, INCONSISTENCY MEN/WOMEN RICH/POOR RACE & ETHNICITY Basic Features of American Law Enforcement, Local political control. Tradition inherited from England. American policing is highly fragmented. Police services are provided by four different levels of government. City. County. State. Federal. Industry perspective on American law enforcement. Provides an idea of different producers of police services in a particular area. Provides a consumer’s perspective on policing. International perspective. Provides a perspective on the decentralization and fragmentation of American law enforcement. Size and Scope of the Law Enforcement Industry, Number of law enforcement agencies. About 18,000 in the United States. It includes about 12,300 local police departments, about 3,000 sheriff’s departments, and 49 state police agencies. Number of law enforcement personnel. Today, there are about 700,000 full-time sworn law enforcement officers. The number has grown since 1997. Total number of employees. Includes clerical staff and civilian specialists in computers, and criminalistics. Number of sworn officers. Employees who are legally recognized as police officers. Agency’s authorized strength. Retirements, resignations, and terminations reduce most departments’ authorized strength. Civilianization. The process of replacing sworn officers with nonsworn personnel for certain positions. Civilians. Free up sworn officers for critical police work. Possess needed expertise in computers or data analysis. Less expensive than sworn officers. Police–population ratio. Standard measure for the level of police protection in a community. Expressed as the number of sworn officers per thousand residents. The cost of police protection. Each year local and state government agencies spend about $110 billion. Costs each and every resident in the United States about $338 every year. The Fragmentation Issue, Fragmentation leads to: Lack of coordination between agencies. Crime displacement. Duplication of services. Inconsistent standards. Alternatives to fragmentation. Consolidation. Public safety consolidation. Contracting. Experts believe the fragmentation problem may not be as serious as others have argued. The Police Services Study (PSS) concluded that small police departments were not necessarily less efficient than large departments. Small departments put more officers on the street performing direct police services. Municipal Police,Represent about 70 percent of all law enforcement agencies. Employ approximately 60 percent of all sworn officers. Play a more complex role than any other type of law enforcement agency. County police. Municipal police that operate on a countywide basis. Constitute less than 1 percent of all local departments.The County Sheriff, Legal status of the sheriff is unique because responsibilities are defined in the state constitution. Sheriffs are elected or appointed. Sheriffs serve all three components of the criminal justice system. Law enforcement. Courts. Corrections. Other Local Agencies, Constables. They are elected or appointed. The state constitution defines their role and function. Typically work within the county court system and with county commissioners. Coroners and medical examiners. Investigate crimes. Employed by a state, county, or city agency. Coroners are not trained physicians and are elected to their position. Medical examiners are appointed and receive special training. Investigate 20 percent of deaths in the United States.Special district police. Serve particular government agencies or special geographic boundaries. Possess general arrest powers, often carry firearms, are certified by the state. Tribal police. Native American tribes maintain their own separate criminal justice systems. About 300 police agencies in the United States have primary responsibility for providing police services to the roughly 330 reservations in Indian country. Most tribally operated police agencies are small. State Law Enforcement Agencies, Agencies fall into three categories. State police. Agencies having statewide police powers for both traffic regulation and criminal investigations. Share responsibility with local police agencies. State laws vary regarding responsibility for criminal investigation. Highway patrols. Agencies having statewide authority to enforce traffic regulations and arrest non-traffic violators under their jurisdiction. Responsible for enforcing traffic laws on the main highways. State investigative agencies. Federal Law Enforcement Agencies, Constitute 132,000 full-time federal law enforcement employees. 21 federal law enforcement agencies employ 250 or more sworn officers. Role of each federal agency is specified by federal statute. Federal law enforcement post September 11, 2001. On November 25, 2002, the Homeland Security Act was passed, creating the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). In 1870, Congress established the Department of Justice. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Four largest federal law enforcement employers with DHS. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Federal Protective Services. U.S. Secret Service. The Department of Justice, Four largest Department of Justice agencies. Drug Enforcement Administration (D E A). Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF). U.S. Marshals Service. The Private Security Industry, Involves many small, private agencies; part-time employees; and security personnel that are employed by private businesses. It is estimated that there are about 1.1 million people employed as private security. Responsible for patrolling and providing protection at public and private locations.Private police organizations differ from the public police by the following characteristics: Focus more on crime. Have more alternatives for addressing problems. Place more emphasis on the prevention of problems. Primarily concerned with matters occurring on, or with, private property. Minimum Standards: American Style, The United States does not have a national police system. Federal and state governments require some minimum standards for law enforcement agencies. Process for developing and enforcing these standards is not systematic. The role of the federal government. The most important set of national standards are the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court related to police procedures. Relying on the Supreme Court to define minimum standards for police has serious limitations. Minimum Standards: American Style, The role of state governments. State governments set minimum standards for police in a number of areas. State supreme courts rule on issues under their state constitutions. The most important role has been to require the licensing or certification of all sworn officers. Accreditation. It is the process of professional self-regulation. Major weakness with accreditation is that it is a voluntary process. Process of becoming accredited is expensive. Effective communication can produce several positive outcomes Can be used to inform, persuade, diffuse, guide, motivate, reassure, and negotiate Police officers routinely communicate in every facet of their jobs Effective communication can be a powerful public relations tool Special populations that may pose especially challenging communication problems Lines of Communication within an Agency, FLOW OF COMMUNICATION Vertically downward from the chief Upward from line officers Horizontally among those on the same “level” The grapevine or the “rumor mill” Powerful Can help or hurt Technological Advances in Police Communication RAPID EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY Enhanced access to databases Web sites and social media Concerns Community security Interference on the line Dropped calls Lack of interoperability 10-codes Challenges in Communicating with an Increasingly Diverse Public, DIFFICULTIES IN UNDERSTANDING Communicating with the elderly Non-English-speaking immigrants Those from a different culture Disabilities or conditions affecting speech Mentally ill Mentally retarded or autistic Communicating to Obtain Information, CONVEY THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INFORMATION Much information may seem irrelevant Listen empathetically Officers must listen to their “clients” Skillfully phrased questions Active listening The Field Inquiry and Authority to Stop, UNPLANNED QUESTIONING Field contact Field contact card Authority to stop Terry stop Reasonable suspicion Officers must be flexible The Interview, ROUTINE COMMUNICATION The importance of rapport Setting the stage Recording the interview Types of questions Closed Leading Open Interviewing Techniques, STRUCTURE Phrasing questions Avoiding contaminating an interview Interviewing witnesses and victims The cognitive interview Interviewing children Statements Information from Informants, PROVIDERS OF INFORMATION Identity must be protected Law enforcement commonly categorizes informants “Credible informants” or CIs Corroboration Officers often know informants’ identities Anonymous Tips, CONSTITUTIONAL PROTECTIONS Fourth Amendment provisions Alabama v. White (1990) Officers must use sound judgment Use court rulings as guidelines Florida v. J. L. (2000) The Interrogation,OBTAINING FACTS The Miranda decision Waiving the Miranda rights Which comes first: Miranda warning or questioning? Beachheading When Miranda is not required Totality of circumstances test Beheler admonition The Interrogation, OBTAINING FACTS Consular rights warnings to foreign nationals Ethical considerations in interrogation Use of force or coercion during interrogation Detecting deception Truth detection technology Documenting confessions Report Writing, IMPORTANT COMMUNICATION SKILL The importance of field notes Purposes of reports The audience Common problems The effective report Computer-assisted report entry Interaction and Cooperation with the Media, KEYS TO SUCCESS Have a clear policy on releasing information Treat all reporters fairly The need for privacy Victims Witnesses CALEA standard Inform the public Govern the information Summary, Special problems in communicating include keeping police communications secure Special populations that may pose especially challenging communication issues Effective communication in the field is critical Effective reports are accurate, brief, clear, complete, legible, objective, grammatically correct, and correctly spelled Departments must balance the “right to know” and the need to withhold certain information Quasi-Military Style of Police Organizations, Officers wear uniforms. Military-style rank designations. Hierarchical command structure. Authoritarian organizational style. Officers have legal authority to use deadly force and carry weapons.Criticisms of the quasi-military style. Cultivates an “us versus them” attitude. Encourages the idea of a “war on crime.” Authoritarian command style is contrary to democratic principles of participation and produces low morale. Rigid rank structure fails to provide sufficient job satisfaction. Police Departments as Organizations, The dominant style of American police organizations. The typical police department is a complex bureaucracy. Characteristics of the modern bureaucracy. Complex organization. Different tasks are grouped into bureaus. Organizational structure is hierarchical or pyramidal. Responsibility for specific tasks is delegated to lower-ranking employees. Clear chain of command. Clear unity of command. Written rules and regulations. Flow of information according to the chain of command. Clear career paths. The modern police bureaucracy began to emerge in the early twentieth century. The leaders of this movement were August Vollmer, Bruce Smith, and O. W. Wilson. Problems with bureaucracies. Rigid, inflexible, and unable to adapt to external changes. Communication often breaks down.Tend to become inward-looking, self-serving, and isolated from the people they serve. Accused of not using the talents of their employees and even stifling creativity. Positive contributions of bureaucracy. Development of many specialties has required the growth of complex organizations that have the capacity to coordinate all activities. Control of police discretion and the reduction of misconduct. Written rules on the use of deadly force or the response to domestic violence.Informal aspects of police organizations. Within almost all police departments there are “cliques” or informal networks of officers. Vertical cliques: Formed between lower- and higher-ranking officers. Horizontal cliques: Formed between similarly ranked officers. Bureaucracy and Police Professionalism, Professionalism is challenged by the bureaucratic nature of policing. Because of the history of the American police, police professionalism acquired a special meaning. Professional departments adopted a “by the book” approach to policing. The bureaucracy imposes formal controls over the behavior of police officers. Changing Police Organizations, Community policing. Attempts to modify the police organization through debureaucratization. Attempts to decentralize decision making both territorially and administratively. Requires the police to deformalize. Encourages organizations to despecialize functions. Attempts to delayerize. Task forces. Consisting of officers from different ranks within the same agency. Interagency task force approach addresses several problems related to the traditional police organizational structure. COMPSTAT (short for “compare stats”). Key features. COMPSTAT clarifies the department’s mission, goals, and values. COMPSTAT holds managers within the organization accountable. Organizational power and authority are transferred to commanders who are responsible for geographic areas. Resources are transferred to commanders who are responsible for geographic areas. Data are used to identify problems and to evaluate success and failure. Middle managers are expected to use innovative problem-solving tactics. Civil Service, Represents a set of formal and legally binding procedures governing personnel decisions. Nearly universal. Purpose: To ensure that personnel decisions are based on objective criteria and not on favoritism, bias, or political influence. The civil service agency and the police department share responsibility for personnel policies.Civil service systems reinforce the hierarchical structure of police departments. Four formal hierarchies. Rewards hierarchy. Seniority hierarchy. Status hierarchy. Rank hierarchy. Civil service creates a number of problems for police organizations. It limits the power of police chiefs. It limits the opportunities and incentives for individual officers. the provisions for discipline make it extremely difficult for chiefs to terminate bad officers or even to discipline officers for poor performance. Police Unions , Police union: An organization legally authorized to represent police officers in collective bargaining with the employer. Majority of sworn police officers in the United States today are members of police unions. Three major police unions. Fraternal Order of Police (F O P). International Union of Police Associations (IUPA). Teamsters Law Enforcement League.Collective bargaining. The method of determining conditions of employment through bilateral negotiations. Basic principles. Employees have a legal right to form unions of their own choosing. Employers must recognize employee unions. Employees have a right to participate in negotiations over working conditions. Employers are required to negotiate with the union’s designated representatives.Grievance procedures. Provide due process to employees. Impasse settlement and strikes. An impasse exists when the union and the city or county cannotagree on a contract. Police strikes are illegal in many states. The impact of police unions. Improved police officer salaries and benefits. Jobs in law enforcement became more competitive in part because of the increase in police officers’ pay. Police Organizations and Their Environment,Contingency theory. The dominant theoretical framework for understanding the structures and practices of police organizations. The underlying premise is the belief that organizations are created and structured to achieve specific goals, such as crime control. Institutional theory. Holds that police organizations are social institutions that operate in relation to their external social and political environment. The central premise is the belief that the organization and activities of the police must be understood in the context of their institutional environment.Resource dependency theory. Suggests that organizations must obtain resources to survive. To obtain these resources they must engage in exchanges with other organizations. Only a few studies to date have used resource dependency theory to understand police organizations. Introduction, Stopping and frisking, arresting, and searching—may be needed in a variety of situations Police officers are expected to be familiar with the basic rules of criminal procedure This chapter focuses on making legal arrests and searches Officers must act to fulfill their responsibilities but always within the constraints of the law The Continuum of Contacts, POLICE WORK More than enforcing the law Continuous contact with people Almost limitless variation Police action must correlate to an individual’s actions Continuum Saying hello Justifying force Stop and Frisk, POLICE AUTHORITY Stop-and-frisk situation, also called a Terry stop Is considered a search Is not an arrest The stop is a seizure of the person The frisk For the officers’ safety Suspicion the person is armed Legal Arrests, IMPORTANT AND EXTREME STEP Arrest defined When arrests can be made In the presence Probable cause De facto arrest Illegal seizure Lacks probable cause IMPORTANT AND EXTREME STEP Importance of lawful arrests Fundamental rights to personal liberty and privacy Is strict and technical First step in criminal proceedings May taint crucial evidence of guilt Quality of police performance is judged May result in civil suits Procedures for Making Legal Arrests, TYPICAL ARREST SITUATION Always be on guard when making arrests Announce the arrest and the reason for it Handcuff the person if warranted Search the arrested person Weapons and evidence Give the Miranda warning Questions are to be asked The Use of Force in Making an Arrest, OBTAINING COMPLIANCE Verbal judo Use of force models Compliant Level Resistive (Passive) Level Resistive (Active) Level Assaultive (Bodily Harm) Level Assaultive (Serious Bodily Harm or Death) Level OBTAINING COMPLIANCE Use-of-force continuums Using forcible entry to arrest (or search) The knock and announce rule No-knock warrants Level of destruction Use of handcuffs in making an arrest Excessive force OBTAINING COMPLIANCE Use of nonlethal or less-lethal weapons in making arrests Use of deadly force in making arrests The duty to warn Written reports on use of force Use of force and community policing Legal Searches, OBTAINING AND EXECUTING SEARCH WARRANTS The property was stolen or embezzled Possession of the property is a crime Someone intends to use it to commit a crime The property was used in committing a crime Items tend to show that a crime was committed Shows a specific person committed the crime OBTAINING AND EXECUTING SEARCH WARRANTS Exceptions to search warrant requirements Arrest warrant execution Frisks Search incident to arrest Motor vehicle exception Consent Plain view Plain feel OBTAINING AND EXECUTING SEARCH WARRANTS Exceptions to search warrant requirements Luggage searches Thermal imaging Abandoned property Open fields Border searches Inventory Exigent circumstances Procedures for Legally Searching People, BASIC GUIDELINES Handcuff the subject if warranted Keep the subject facing away Be systematic and thorough Keep the person under control Opposite sex Use back of hand when searching “private” areas ALARMS OR CALLS FROM CITIZENS Require extreme caution Arrive as quietly as possible The search must be carefully planned Make sure enough personnel are available Make use of solid cover during the search Use proper search techniques Using K-9s in Searches,DOGS Invaluable in conducting searches United States v. Place (1983) City of Indianapolis v. Edmond (2000) Officers should consult their laws related to using a dog Be aware of some of the drawbacks and limitations Some days a dog may not perform well The Exclusionary Rule and Its Exceptions, DETERRING POLICE MISCONDUCT Exclusionary rule Fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine Inevitable discovery doctrine Valid independent source Good faith Summary, Law enforcement officers must maintain a balance between “freedom to” and “freedom from” An arrest is the official taking of a person to answer criminal charges To make lawful arrests, officers must know both substantive and procedural law Handcuffing may be considered a use of force The Exclusionary Rule established that the courts cannot accept evidence obtained in illegal searches and seizures Introduction, Patrol service has been described as the backbone of the police department Patrol officers are the most valuable people in the organization Patrol techniques and strategies are examined, including results of the classic Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment The chapter concludes with a discussion of patrol and community policing The Importance and “Place” of Patrol in Policing, IDENTITY AND IMPORTANCE Organizational contradiction Most crucial people Lowest on totem pole Promotion is not via patrol Often regarded as disposable Tendency to judge value by rank Patrol Functions, TASKS AND DUTIES CALEA Standard 41.1 Primary law enforcement function More than the act of patrolling Variety of activities (bumper) Traditional response Requests for service to alternate strategies TASKS AND DUTIES Deterring or preventing crime and disorder Noncrime calls for service Controlling traffic Assisting at the scene of a crime Crimes in progress Preliminary investigations ASKS AND DUTIES Making arrests Special events Assisting at the scene of a fire Community service Peacekeeping function Patrol Methods, DEPENDS ON NEEDS Foot patrol Create representative maps Community survey Community participation planning sessions Recruit a range of individuals Variety of approaches DEPENDS ON NEEDS Automobile patrol Assigned vehicle programs One-officer versus two-officer patrol units In-car video Global positioning and information systems Voice-activated patrol car equipment DEPENDS ON NEEDS Motorcycle patrol Bicycle patrol Segways Ecofriendly Economical Mounted patrol Air patrol Expensive to operate DEPENDS ON NEEDS Water patrol Special-terrain vehicles K-9 assisted patrol Very popular Combination patrol Jurisdiction Size Patrol Techniques and Strategies, ESSENTIAL FUNCTION Routine Patrol and the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment Three groups each with five beats Reactive beats Control beats Proactive beats ESSENTIAL FUNCTION Patrol experiment found ? measurable effect on: Crime Fear of crime Attitudes toward police Police response time Traffic accidents ESSENTIAL FUNCTION Area and shift assignments Proportionate assignment Response time Discovery crimes Involvement crimes Differential police response strategies ESSENTIAL FUNCTION Split-force patrol Continuous presence Saturation patrol Hot spots (balloon) Directed patrol Focus on specific department goals Patrol and Problem-Oriented Policing, PROBLEM DRIVEN Problem-oriented policing Herman Goldstein in 1979 Shift in perspective Reactive to proactive Think in terms of problems Move beyond just handling incidents PROBLEM DRIVEN The SARA problem-solving process Scanning Analysis Response Assessment Process evaluation Impact evaluation Patrol and Community Policing SHIFT IN PATROL METHODS Patrol officers can be catalysts Greater use of foot, bicycle, mounted, and K-9–assisted patrol Redeployment of patrol officers Identifying specific “hot spots” Summary, Officers on patrol serve many functions Between 80 and 90 percent of all calls for police service are of a noncriminal nature Crowds may be classified as self-controlled, active, or explosive Different patrol techniques have met with varying degrees of success The SARA problem-solving technique has contributed greatly to policing effectiveness.

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