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Armenian Genocide

  • The Armenian Genocide (1915-1917) involved wartime atrocities against Armenians, leading to the death of approximately one million individuals.

  • Causes included starvation, dehydration, exposure, and organized government massacres (drowning, incineration, blunt force).

  • The Turkish government denies it was genocide, attributing deaths to communal warfare, disease, and famine.

The Ottoman Empire in WWI

  • Ottoman forces initially fended off Allied attacks (Gallipoli, 1915; Mesopotamia, 1916) but eventually retreated on all fronts.

  • They surrendered to Russians in the Caucasus and were unable to defend against British invasions through Egypt, India, and Australia.

  • The Arab revolt in 1916, supported by the British, sought independence from Ottoman rule and aimed to create a unified Arab nation.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

  • The Sykes-Picot Treaty of 1916 secretly divided Ottoman territories into British and French spheres of influence post-war.

  • The Balfour Declaration (1917) supported establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, complicating Arab independence aspirations.

After the War

  • The war caused internal strains that led to food riots, strikes, and mutinies in various nations; the Russian empire was particularly affected.

  • The abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in spring 1917 led to a provisional government; Bolsheviks seized power in late 1917, taking Russia out of WWI.

  • America's entry into the war in 1917 shifted the balance, leading to Central Powers seeking peace in November 1918.

Russian Revolutions

February Revolution

  • The revolution saw widespread protests in Petrograd (St. Petersburg), leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule.

  • Resulted in two centers of power: the provisional government and the Petrograd Soviet (Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies).

The Struggle for Power

  • The provisional government, seeking to maintain alliance and continue the war, lost support to the Bolshevik-led Petrograd Soviet advocating for peace.

  • Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin called for leadership toward a socialist society, capitalizing on protests against the provisional government.

October Revolution

  • Bolsheviks gained power through an armed insurrection on 7 November 1917, resulting in a bloodless coup.

  • They signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) with Germany, conceding territory but preventing further engagement in WWI.

U.S. Entry into WWI

  • Initial American neutrality shifted as economic ties with the Allies deepened; U.S. intervention in 1917 helped to turn the tide against the Central Powers.

  • The economic focus included maintaining war material production amidst a recession that transitioned to wartime recovery.

Artistic Responses to War

Dada Movement

  • Rooted in reaction to the brutality of WWI, Dadaists in Europe rejected nationalism and materialism, creating non-art.

Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity)

  • This German movement criticized postwar society's evils with realistic depictions of life after war.

Varieties of Artistic Expression

  • New schools of art emerged, with painters focusing on instinct over representation; the freedom to define one's own reality became critical.

The Great Depression

Economic Collapse

  • The Great Depression of 1929 had devastating global effects on economies and was characterized by vast unemployment and bank failures.

  • Overproduction in agriculture, decline in prices, and reliance on U.S. loans contributed to the economic turmoil worldwide.

Resilience and Responses

  • Governments initially took little action, and when they did, often resorted to policies that worsened conditions.

  • Keynesian economics emerged as a response to the crisis, advocating for government intervention to boost demand.

U.S. Policies and FDR

  • Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal aimed to revitalize the economy through reforms, job programs, and social security initiatives.

Rise of Nationalism in the Global South

African Nationalism

  • The emergence of a new elite in Africa, shaped by colonialism, led to forms of nationalism drawing on ethnic, religious, and racial identities.

  • Influential figures such as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. DuBois promoted pan-Africanism and identity.

Latin American Struggles

  • Post-independence struggles for stability faced neocolonial influences; the Great War and Great Depression shaped regional dynamics significantly.