Life Span Development Psychology Test 1

APGAR

• APGAR is a quick assessment tool used to evaluate the health of newborns immediately after birth, assessing five criteria: Appearance, Pulse, Grimace response, Activity, and Respiration.

• The APGAR test is a quick assessment conducted on newborns shortly after birth to evaluate their overall health and determine whether any immediate medical intervention is required. The test is usually performed at one and five minutes after birth. The name "APGAR" is an acronym for the five criteria evaluated, and it is also named after Dr. Virginia Apgar, who developed the test in 1952. Here are the components of the APGAR test:

  Components of the APGAR Test:

  1. Appearance (Skin Color):

     • 0 points: Blue or pale all over.

     • 1 point: Normal color (pink) on body but blue extremities.

     • 2 points: Normal color all over (hands and feet are pink).

  2. Pulse (Heart Rate):

     • 0 points: No heartbeat.

     • 1 point: Fewer than 100 beats per minute.

     • 2 points: At least 100 beats per minute.

  3. Grimace Response (Reflex Irritability):

     • 0 points: No response to stimulation.

     • 1 point: Grimace or weak response to stimulation.

     • 2 points: Strong response to stimulation, such as coughing, sneezing, or crying.

  4. Activity (Muscle Tone):

     • 0 points: Limp and floppy.

     • 1 point: Some muscle tone, weak movements.

     • 2 points: Active motion, well-flexed arms and legs.

  5. Respiration (Breathing Effort):

     • 0 points: Not breathing.

     • 1 point: Weak, irregular, or gasping breaths.

     • 2 points: Strong, regular crying and breathing.

  Scoring:

  • 0-2 points: The baby may need immediate medical attention and resuscitation.

  • 3-6 points: The baby may need some medical assistance, such as suctioning airways or oxygen supplementation.

  • 7-10 points: The baby is generally in good health and may only require routine post-birth care.

  The APGAR test provides a quick and easy way to assess the newborn's health and determine the need for any immediate interventions. However, it is not a predictor of long-term health outcomes.

postpartum maternal concerns

• Postpartum maternal concerns include physical recovery, emotional well-being, and the adjustment to parenting, which can significantly impact the overall development of the newborn.

• Baby blues: A common condition experienced by new mothers, characterized by feelings of sadness, anxiety, and irritability, typically occurring within the first few weeks after childbirth.

• Postpartum Depression: A more severe and persistent form of mood disturbance that affects approximately 10-15% of new mothers, often requiring professional intervention and support to manage symptoms such as prolonged sadness, loss of interest in activities, and difficulty bonding with the baby.

• Peripartum-onset mood disorders: These disorders encompass a range of mood disturbances that can occur during pregnancy and up to a year postpartum, including conditions like postpartum depression and anxiety, which may significantly affect both maternal and infant health.

three stages of pregnancy

• First Trimester: This stage lasts from conception to 12 weeks, during which significant hormonal changes occur, and the embryo develops into a fetus.

• Second Trimester: Spanning from 13 to 26 weeks, this stage is often characterized by a reduction in early pregnancy symptoms and the growth of the fetus becomes more noticeable.

• Third Trimester: Lasting from 27 weeks until birth, this stage involves the final development of the fetus and preparation for delivery, with increased physical discomfort for the mother.

  

phenotype

• the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. These traits result from the interaction of the organism's genotype (its genetic makeup) with the environment.

schema

• a mental structure that helps individuals organize and interpret information. It allows the brain to work more efficiently by creating shortcuts in interpreting vast amounts of data.\

• schema: A schema can include concepts, categories, and relationships, which are essential for understanding new information and experiences. Schemas can also evolve over time as individuals encounter new experiences and information, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of the world around them.

object permanence

• the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or otherwise sensed

SIDS

• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is a term used to describe the unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant, usually during sleep. It typically occurs in infants between one month and one year old, with the highest risk period being between two and four months. Here are some key points about SIDS:

  Causes and Risk Factors:

  • The exact cause of SIDS is unknown, but it is believed to result from a combination of factors, including abnormalities in the part of an infant's brain that controls breathing and arousal from sleep.

  • Risk factors include sleeping on the stomach or side, sleeping on a soft surface, overheating during sleep, and exposure to cigarette smoke.

  • Other risk factors include prematurity, low birth weight, and a family history of SIDS.

  Prevention:

  • Place infants on their backs to sleep, on a firm mattress with no soft bedding or toys.

  • Keep the baby's sleep area in the same room as the parents' for at least the first six months.

  • Breastfeeding and using a pacifier during sleep have been associated with a reduced risk of SIDS.

  • Avoid exposure to smoke, alcohol, and illicit drugs during pregnancy and after birth.

  Support and Education:

  • Parents and caregivers should be educated about safe sleep practices to reduce the risk of SIDS.

  • Support groups and resources are available for families affected by SIDS to help them cope with their loss.parenting styles

Parenting styles

• Athoritarian: A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, where parents enforce strict rules and expect obedience without providing much warmth or emotional support.

• Premissive: A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and low demands, where parents are lenient and indulgent, often allowing children significant freedom in their activities and decision-making.

• Authoritative: A parenting style characterized by a balance of high demands and high responsiveness, where parents set clear expectations while also being supportive and nurturing, encouraging open communication and independence in their children.

• Uninvolved: A parenting style characterized by low demands and low responsiveness, where parents are detached from their children's lives, offering little guidance, support, or attention to their needs.

mitosis

• a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells, each having the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is essential for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms.

• Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

• ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is a critical process for growth, development, and tissue repair in organisms.

components of exposure to teratogens

• Exposure to teratogens during pregnancy can have significant effects on fetal development. Teratogens are substances or factors that can cause congenital abnormalities or birth defects2. Here are the key components of exposure to teratogens:

  1. Type of Teratogen: The specific substance or factor that causes harm, such as drugs, alcohol, chemicals, infections, or radiation.

  2. Timing of Exposure: The stage of pregnancy during which exposure occurs is critical. Different stages of fetal development are more sensitive to teratogens at different times2.

  3. Duration of Exposure: How long the pregnant person is exposed to the teratogen can influence the severity of the effects.

  4. Dosage or Quantity: The amount of the teratogen the pregnant person is exposed to can determine the extent of the impact on the fetus.

  5. Genetic Susceptibility: Individual genetic factors can influence how susceptible the fetus is to teratogens.

  6. Environmental Factors: External factors such as pollution, radiation, and other environmental toxins can also play a role in teratogenic effects

• Examples of Common Teratogens:

  • Alcohol: Can cause fetal alcohol syndrome, leading to physical and cognitive disabilities.

  • Tobacco Smoke: Associated with low birth weight, premature birth, and respiratory issues.

  • Certain Medications: Some prescription and over-the-counter medications can be teratogenic, such as thalidomide, isotretinoin, and certain antiepileptic drugs.

  • Infections: Certain infections during pregnancy, like rubella and cytomegalovirus, can lead to congenital abnormalities.

  • Environmental Toxins: Exposure to chemicals like lead and pesticides can harm fetal development.

• Prevention:

  • Preconception Counseling: Women planning to conceive should consult healthcare providers to review medications and lifestyle habits that might pose risks.

  • Prenatal Care: Regular prenatal check-ups help monitor and mitigate any risks of teratogen exposure.

  • Lifestyle Changes: Avoiding alcohol, smoking, and illicit drugs is crucial.

  • Vaccinations: Ensuring that vaccinations for preventable diseases like rubella are up to date before pregnancy can reduce the risk of congenital infections.

  • Environmental Awareness: Being mindful of and avoiding exposure to harmful environmental pollutants is important.

age of viability

• 24 weeks od gestationis considered the age of viability, as it marks the point at which a fetus has a reasonable chance of survival outside the womb with medical assistance.

• Definition: The age of viability is generally considered to be around 24 weeks of gestation. At this stage, the fetus has developed enough that it can potentially survive outside the mother's body with significant medical support.

• Factors Influencing Viability: Several factors can influence the survival of a premature baby, including gestational age, birth weight, the presence of congenital anomalies, and the availability of advanced neonatal care.

• Medical Interventions: Advances in neonatal care, including the use of ventilators, surfactant therapy to aid lung function, and specialized neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), have improved the survival rates of babies born at or near the age of viability.

• Ethical Considerations: The age of viability also raises important ethical and legal questions regarding the care and treatment of extremely premature infants, the potential for long-term disabilities, and decisions about medical intervention.

Developmental Milestones:

• Before 24 Weeks: The lungs and other critical organs are still developing, making survival outside the womb extremely challenging.

• 24-26 Weeks: The chances of survival begin to improve, but the risks of complications and long-term disabilities remain high.

• 27-32 Weeks: The likelihood of survival increases significantly, and the risk of severe complications decreases, although some developmental challenges may still occur.

• 33-37 Weeks: Babies born during this period are often referred to as late preterm and generally have good outcomes, with fewer complications and a higher survival rate.

Sensorimotor stage and substages

• The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development proposed by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. This stage spans from birth to approximately two years of age and is characterized by infants learning about the world through their senses and motor activities. The sensorimotor stage is further divided into six substages, each marked by the development of specific cognitive abilities:

  1. Reflexive Schemes (0-1 month)

  • Description: Infants' actions are primarily based on innate reflexes such as sucking, grasping, and looking.

  • Example: A newborn automatically sucking on a nipple or finger.

  2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

  • Description: Infants begin to engage in repetitive behaviors centered on their own body. These actions are pleasurable and are repeated.

  • Example: An infant repeatedly sucking their thumb or cooing.

  3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

  • Description: Infants' repetitive behaviors now involve objects and the external environment. They begin to intentionally perform actions that produce interesting outcomes.

  • Example: A baby shaking a rattle to hear the sound it makes.

  4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months)

  • Description: Infants start to combine previously learned schemes in a coordinated way to achieve specific goals. They demonstrate intentionality and problem-solving skills.

  • Example: An infant using one hand to hold a toy while using the other hand to manipulate it.

  5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

  • Description: Infants begin to explore and experiment with new actions to observe different outcomes. They display curiosity and creativity in their interactions with objects.

  • Example: A child repeatedly dropping a ball from different heights to see how it bounces.

  6. Mental Representation (18-24 months)

  • Description: Infants develop the ability to form mental representations of objects and events. They can think about things that are not immediately present and solve problems mentally.

  • Example: A child remembering where a toy was hidden and retrieving it later.

  Summary

  The sensorimotor stage is a crucial period in cognitive development, as it lays the foundation for later stages of cognitive growth. Through these six substages, infants gradually transition from relying on reflexive actions to developing intentional and representational thought processes.

chromosomal abnormality

• a change in the normal structure or number of chromosomes, which can lead to developmental and health issues

• Types of Chromosomal Abnormalities:

  1. Numerical Abnormalities:

     • Aneuploidy: This occurs when there is an abnormal number of chromosomes. Examples include:

       • Trisomy: Presence of an extra chromosome, resulting in three copies instead of the normal two. For example:

         • Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21): An extra copy of chromosome 21.

         • Edwards Syndrome (Trisomy 18): An extra copy of chromosome 18.

         • Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13): An extra copy of chromosome 13.

       • Monosomy: Missing a chromosome, resulting in only one copy instead of the normal two. For example:

         • Turner Syndrome: Females have only one X chromosome instead of two (45,X).

  2. Structural Abnormalities:

     • Deletions: A portion of a chromosome is missing or deleted. For example:

       • Cri du Chat Syndrome: Deletion on chromosome 5.

     • Duplications: A portion of a chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material.

     • Translocations: A segment of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. It can be balanced (no genetic material is lost or gained) or unbalanced (genetic material is lost or gained).

     • Inversions: A chromosome segment breaks off, flips around, and reattaches, reversing the gene order.

     • Ring Chromosomes: A chromosome forms a ring shape due to deletions in the arms, causing the ends to fuse.

  Effects of Chromosomal Abnormalities:

  • Physical and Developmental Features: Individuals with chromosomal abnormalities may have distinct physical features, growth delays, and developmental disabilities.

  • Health Issues: Chromosomal abnormalities can lead to various health problems, such as congenital heart defects, respiratory issues, and neurological conditions.

• Detection and Diagnosis:

  • Prenatal Screening: Tests like amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can detect chromosomal abnormalities before birth.

  • Postnatal Testing: Karyotyping and genetic testing can diagnose chromosomal abnormalities after birth.

postpartum psychosis

• a rare but severe mental health condition that affects some women shortly after childbirth. It typically occurs within the first two weeks postpartum but can happen up to six weeks after giving birth

• Symptoms:

  • Hallucinations: Seeing or hearing things that aren't real.

  • Delusions: Strongly held false beliefs, often related to the baby.

  • Mood Swings: Rapid changes from extreme sadness to euphoria.

  • Confusion: Disorientation and difficulty thinking clearly.

  • Paranoia: Believing that others are trying to harm the baby.

  • Erratic Behavior: Unusual or unpredictable actions.

  Risk Factors:

  • Previous Mental Health Issues: History of bipolar disorder or previous episodes of postpartum psychosis.

  • Family History: Genetic predisposition to mental health conditions.

  • Hormonal Changes: Significant hormonal shifts after childbirth.

  • Sleep Deprivation: Lack of sleep can contribute to the onset of PPP.

  Treatment:

  • Medications: Antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, and sometimes antidepressants.

  • Hospitalization: Often required for the safety of the mother and baby.

  • Support: Therapy and support groups can be beneficial for recovery.

  Prognosis:

  With prompt and appropriate treatment, most women recover fully from postpartum psychosis. Early intervention is crucial to ensure the best outcomes for both the mother and the baby

lateralization

• the tendency for certain cognitive processes or functions to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other

• Lateralization develops during early childhood and continues to mature throughout adolescence.

• Factors such as genetics, environment, and experiences can influence the extent and nature of lateralization

• Common Functions of Each Hemisphere:

  • Left Hemisphere:

    • Language processing, including speaking, reading, and writing.

    • Logical reasoning and analytical thinking.

    • Mathematics and sequential processing.

  • Right Hemisphere:

    • Spatial awareness and visual-spatial processing.

    • Creativity, music, and art appreciation.

    • Recognizing faces and interpreting emotions.

• Corpus Callosum:

  • The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, a thick band of nerve fibers that allows them to communicate and coordinate functions.

• Language: In most right-handed individuals, language functions are primarily located in the left hemisphere, particularly in areas like Broca's area and Wernicke's area.

• Spatial Skills: Right hemisphere specialization is evident in tasks that require spatial abilities, such as navigating a maze or visualizing objects in three-dimensional space.

components of language

• Phonemes: The smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning. For example, the sounds /p/ and /b/ in "pat" and "bat."

• Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language. These can be roots, prefixes, and suffixes. For example, "un-" in "unhappy" or "-ed" in "walked."

• Syntax:

  • Sentence Structure: The rules that govern the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences.

  • Grammar: The overall system of rules and structures that make up a language, including syntax and morphology.

• Semantics:

  • Meaning: The study of meaning in language, including word meanings, sentence meanings, and the relationships between words and concepts.

  • Vocabulary: The set of words and their meanings in a language.

• Pragmatics:

  • Contextual Use: How language is used in different contexts and situations to convey meaning and achieve communication goals.

  • Speech Acts: The various functions of language, such as making requests, giving commands, making statements, and asking questions.

  6. Prosody:

  • Intonation: The variation in pitch and tone of speech that helps convey meaning, emotion, and emphasis.

  • Rhythm and Stress: The patterns of stress and timing in speech that contribute to the flow and intelligibility of language.

  7. Discourse:

  • Coherence and Cohesion: The ways in which sentences and phrases are connected to create meaningful and logical communication.

  • Text Structure: The organization of written or spoken texts, including paragraphs, sections, and overall flow.

behavioral genetics

• a field of study that examines the role of genetic and environmental influences on behaviors. It combines principles from genetics, psychology, and biology to understand how genes and environment contribute to individual differences in behavior.

• Genetic Influence:

  • Behavioral genetics studies how variations in genes contribute to differences in behavior.

  • Genes can influence behaviors directly or indirectly by affecting brain structure and function, neurotransmitter levels, and hormone production.

• Environmental Influence:

  • Environmental factors, such as upbringing, culture, and life experiences, also play a significant role in shaping behavior.

  • The interplay between genes and environment is complex, and both factors can influence each other.

• Heritability:

  • Heritability is a measure of how much of the variation in a particular trait can be attributed to genetic differences within a population.

  • It is important to note that heritability is a population-level measure and does not apply to individuals.

Research Methods:

1. Twin Studies:

   • Twin studies compare identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) with fraternal twins (who share about 50% of their genes) to assess the genetic and environmental contributions to behavior.

   • Identical twins reared apart are also studied to separate genetic influences from environmental ones.

2. Adoption Studies:

   • Adoption studies compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to determine the influence of genetics and environment on behavior.

   • These studies help disentangle the effects of shared family environment from genetic factors.

3. Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS):

   • GWAS examine the entire genome to identify specific genetic variations associated with particular behaviors or traits.

   • These studies require large sample sizes to detect the small genetic effects on complex behaviors.

Applications:

• Mental Health: Understanding genetic and environmental factors in mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia, can lead to better diagnosis and treatment.

• Personality: Behavioral genetics explores how genes and environment influence personality traits, such as extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

• Intelligence: Research in behavioral genetics investigates the genetic and environmental contributions to cognitive abilities and educational attainment.

• Behavioral Disorders: Studies focus on genetic and environmental factors contributing to disorders like ADHD, autism, and conduct disorders.

nature vs nurture

• the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development, behavior, and personality.

• Nature (Genetics)

  • Genetic Inheritance: Traits and behaviors are determined by genes and hereditary factors. This perspective emphasizes the role of biology and genetics in shaping who we are.

  • Biological Influences: Includes aspects such as physical appearance, susceptibility to certain diseases, intelligence, and even personality trait

• Nurture (Environment)

  • Environmental Factors: Behaviors and traits are shaped by experiences, learning, and external influences. This perspective emphasizes the role of upbringing, culture, and life experiences.

  • Environmental Influences: Includes aspects such as education, social interactions, family dynamics, and cultural norms.

• Both genetic and environmental factors play crucial roles, and their interaction shapes who we are. Rather than viewing them as opposing forces, modern perspectives emphasize the integration of nature and nurture in understanding human behavior.

assimilation and accommodation

• Assimilation and accommodation are two fundamental concepts in Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. They describe how individuals process new information and experiences, and they play a crucial role in how we adapt our understanding of the world.

  Assimilation:

  • Definition: Assimilation involves integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas (mental frameworks or structures). It allows individuals to make sense of new experiences by relating them to what they already know.

  • Example: A child sees a new type of dog they have never seen before. They recognize it as a dog because it fits their existing schema of what a dog is.

  Accommodation:

  • Definition: Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information that doesn't fit into existing schemas. It allows individuals to adjust their understanding to incorporate new experiences.

  • Example: A child who has only seen small dogs encounters a large dog for the first time. They must adjust their schema of a dog to include this new information, recognizing that dogs can vary in size.

  Interaction of Assimilation and Accommodation:

  • Equilibration: Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs through a process of equilibration, where individuals balance assimilation and accommodation to achieve a stable understanding of the world. When new information creates a sense of disequilibrium (imbalance), individuals use assimilation and accommodation to restore equilibrium.

  • Example: A child who initially believes that all birds can fly (assimilation) encounters a penguin. To restore equilibrium, they must adjust their schema to understand that not all birds can fly (accommodation).

  Summary:

  • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

  • Equilibration: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to achieve a stable understanding of the world.

gender dysphoria

• Gender dysphoria is a condition where a person experiences discomfort or distress because there's a mismatch between their gender identity and the sex they were assigned at birth

• Symptoms:

  • Distress: Persistent discomfort with one's assigned gender, often leading to anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues.

  • Desire for Change: A strong desire to be treated as the gender one identifies with, which may include changing one's name, pronouns, clothing, and appearance.

  • Social Challenges: Difficulty in social situations, especially if one's gender identity is not recognized or accepted by others.

  Causes:

  • Biological Factors: Genetic, hormonal, and brain structure differences may contribute to gender dysphoria.

  • Environmental Factors: Social and cultural influences, as well as personal experiences, can also play a role.

  Diagnosis:

  • DSM-5 Criteria: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), provides specific criteria for diagnosing gender dysphoria in children, adolescents, and adults.

  • Professional Evaluation: Diagnosis typically involves a thorough evaluation by a mental health professional.

  Treatment:

  • Psychotherapy: Counseling and support can help individuals explore their gender identity and cope with the associated distress.

  • Medical Interventions: Hormone therapy and gender-affirming surgeries may be considered to align one's physical appearance with their gender identity.

  • Social Support: Support from family, friends, and community can be crucial in the journey of gender transition

numerical abnormality

• Numerical abnormalities, also known as aneuploidies, occur when there is an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell. Humans typically have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs2. Numerical abnormalities can result in having either too many or too few chromosomes, which can lead to various health issues and developmental disorders.

  Types of Numerical Abnormalities:

  1. Trisomy:

     • Definition: Presence of an extra chromosome, resulting in three copies instead of the usual pair.

     • Examples:

       • Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome): An extra copy of chromosome 21.

       • Trisomy 18 (Edwards Syndrome): An extra copy of chromosome 18.

       • Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome): An extra copy of chromosome 13.

  2. Monosomy:

     • Definition: Absence of one chromosome from a pair, resulting in only one copy instead of the usual two.

     • Examples:

       • Monosomy X (Turner Syndrome): Females have only one X chromosome instead of two.

       • Cri-du-Chat Syndrome: Deletion of a part of chromosome 5.

  Effects of Numerical Abnormalities:

  • Physical and Developmental Features: Individuals with numerical abnormalities may exhibit distinct physical features, growth delays, and developmental disabilities.

  • Health Issues: These abnormalities can lead to various health problems, such as congenital heart defects, respiratory issues, and neurological conditions.

  Diagnosis and Detection:

  • Prenatal Screening: Tests like amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can detect numerical abnormalities before birth.

  • Postnatal Testing: Karyotyping and genetic testing can diagnose numerical abnormalities after birth

genotype

• the genetic makeup of an organism. It is the set of genes that an organism carries, which determines various traits and characteristics

• Key Points:

  • Genetic Makeup: The genotype includes all the alleles (versions of genes) that an individual has inherited from their parents. These alleles can be dominant or recessive.

  • Expression: While the genotype provides the blueprint, not all genes are expressed in the organism's phenotype (observable traits). The environment and other factors can influence gene expression.

  • Homozygous and Heterozygous:

    • Homozygous: An individual with two identical alleles for a particular gene (e.g., AA or aa).

    • Heterozygous: An individual with two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g., Aa).

synaptic blooming and synaptic pruning

• Synaptic Blooming and Synaptic Pruning:

  Synaptic Blooming:

  • Definition: Synaptic blooming refers to the rapid formation of synapses (connections between neurons) in the brain during early development.

  • Time Period: This process primarily occurs during the first few years of life, particularly in infancy and early childhood.

  • Significance: Synaptic blooming allows the brain to develop a vast network of neural connections, enabling rapid learning and cognitive development.

  • Examples: During this period, children learn to recognize faces, understand language, and develop motor skills, all facilitated by the extensive network of synapses.

  Synaptic Pruning:

  • Definition: Synaptic pruning is the process by which excess synapses are eliminated, making neural connections more efficient.

  • Time Period: Pruning occurs after the initial phase of synaptic blooming, continuing through childhood, adolescence, and into early adulthood.

  • Significance: Pruning helps to refine neural networks, retaining the most useful and frequently used connections while eliminating less used ones.

  • Examples: As children grow, they lose the ability to differentiate between phonemes of foreign languages if they are not exposed to them. This is an example of synaptic pruning optimizing language processing for the specific language they are learning.

stages of pregnancy

• Stages of Pregnancy:

  • Pre-Embryonic Stage (Weeks 1-2):

    • Fertilization: The sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote.

    • Implantation: The zygote travels down the fallopian tube and implants into the uterine lining.

  • Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8):

    • Organ Formation: Major organs and structures begin to form. This is a critical period for development and is sensitive to teratogens (harmful substances).

    • Heartbeats and Limb Buds: The heart starts beating, and limb buds appear, which will develop into arms and legs.

  • Early Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-12):

    • Development Continues: The fetus’s head becomes more rounded, and the facial features develop. The kidneys begin to function, and nails start to grow.

    • Movements Begin: The fetus starts to make movements, although they may not yet be felt by the mother.

  • Mid Fetal Stage (Weeks 13-26):

    • Rapid Growth: The fetus grows significantly in size. Hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes develop. The fetus can hear sounds and may respond to external stimuli.

    • Viability: By around week 24, the fetus reaches the age of viability, meaning it has a chance of survival outside the womb with medical intervention.

  • Late Fetal Stage (Weeks 27-40):

    • Final Development: The fetus continues to grow and gains weight. The lungs and other organs mature in preparation for birth.

    • Positioning: The baby typically moves into a head-down position, ready for delivery.

teratogens

• Teratogens are substances or factors that can cause congenital abnormalities or birth defects when a developing fetus is exposed to them. The impact of teratogens depends on several factors, including the type of teratogen, the timing of exposure, and the duration and amount of exposure. Here are some key points about teratogens:

  Common Teratogens:

  1. Alcohol:

     • Can lead to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD), which include physical abnormalities, cognitive impairments, and behavioral issues.

     • Most harmful during the first trimester when the baby's organs are forming.

  2. Tobacco Smoke:

     • Associated with low birth weight, preterm birth, and respiratory problems.

     • Can also increase the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).

  3. Prescription and Over-the-Counter Medications:

     • Certain medications, such as isotretinoin (used to treat acne) and thalidomide (used to treat morning sickness in the past), are known teratogens.

     • Pregnant women should consult their healthcare providers before taking any medication.

  4. Illicit Drugs:

     • Drugs like cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine can cause various birth defects and developmental issues, including low birth weight and withdrawal symptoms in the newborn.

  5. Infections:

     • Some infections, such as rubella (German measles), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Zika virus, can cause severe congenital abnormalities, including microcephaly and heart defects.

  6. Environmental Toxins:

     • Exposure to chemicals like lead, mercury, and pesticides can harm fetal development.

     • Pregnant women should avoid exposure to these substances as much as possible.

  7. Radiation:

     • High levels of radiation, such as from X-rays or radiation therapy, can increase the risk of birth defects and developmental issues.

plasticity

• the brain's ability to change and adapt throughout an individual's life. This concept is central to understanding how we learn, develop, and recover from injuries

• Plasticity in Psychology:

  • Neural Plasticity (Neuroplasticity): The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This allows the brain to adapt to new experiences, learn new information, and recover from injuries1.

  • Cognitive Plasticity: The ability to change thinking processes and mental abilities, such as learning new skills or adapting to new environments.

  Lifespan Development:

  • Lifelong Development: Development is a continuous process that occurs from conception to death. It is not limited to childhood or adolescence but continues throughout adulthood2.

  • Multidimensional: Development involves multiple domains, including physical, cognitive, and psychosocial aspects.

  • Multidirectional: Development involves both gains and losses throughout life. For example, while children may gain knowledge and skills, older adults may experience declines in certain abilities.

  • Plasticity: Characteristics are malleable and can change in response to experiences and interventions.

  • Contextual Influences: Development is influenced by various contextual factors, such as family, culture, and socio-economic status

self-concept

• the understanding and perception individuals have of themselves. It encompasses one's beliefs, feelings, and thoughts about personal attributes and identities. In the context of lifespan development psychology, self-concept evolves and changes across different stages of life

• Key Components of Self-Concept:

  1. Self-Image: How individuals see themselves, including physical appearance, roles, and personal characteristics.

  2. Self-Esteem: The value and worth individuals place on themselves; their sense of self-worth.

  3. Self-Ideal: The person individuals aspire to be, their goals and aspirations.

  4. Social Identity: How individuals perceive themselves in relation to social groups, including cultural, ethnic, and gender identities.

  Development of Self-Concept Across the Lifespan:

  1. Infancy and Early Childhood:

     • Emerging Awareness: Infants begin to develop a sense of self-awareness and recognize themselves as separate from others.

     • Self-Recognition: By around 18-24 months, children can recognize themselves in mirrors and photographs, marking the development of self-recognition.

     • Self-Descriptions: Young children describe themselves in concrete terms, such as physical attributes and simple activities (e.g., "I have brown hair" or "I like to play with blocks").

  2. Middle Childhood:

     • More Complex Self-Descriptions: Children start to describe themselves in more complex terms, including personality traits and social roles (e.g., "I am friendly" or "I am a good student").

     • Social Comparisons: Children begin to compare themselves to peers, which influences their self-esteem and self-concept.

  3. Adolescence:

     • Identity Exploration: Adolescents engage in exploring different roles, beliefs, and values as they develop a more coherent sense of identity.

     • Abstract Thinking: The ability to think abstractly allows adolescents to consider broader aspects of self-concept, such as moral beliefs and future goals.

     • Self-Esteem Fluctuations: Self-esteem may fluctuate as adolescents navigate the challenges of identity formation and peer relationships.

  4. Adulthood:

     • Stable Self-Concept: Adults typically have a more stable and coherent self-concept, though it can continue to evolve with life experiences and changes in roles.

     • Career and Family Roles: Self-concept in adulthood is often influenced by career achievements, family roles, and social relationships.

  5. Later Adulthood:

     • Reflection and Life Review: Older adults may reflect on their life experiences, achievements, and regrets, which can influence their self-concept.

     • Adjustments to Aging: Self-concept can be affected by physical changes, retirement, and the loss of loved ones. Positive self-concept in later adulthood is associated with life satisfaction and well-being.

  Significance of Self-Concept:

  • Mental Health: A positive self-concept is associated with higher self-esteem and better mental health.

  • Behavior and Motivation: Self-concept influences behavior, decision-making, and motivation, as individuals strive to align their actions with their self-ideal.

  • Interpersonal Relationships: Understanding and accepting oneself can lead to healthier and more fulfilling relationships with others.

self-esteem

• Self-esteem is a crucial aspect of one's self-concept and refers to the overall sense of self-worth or personal value. In lifespan development psychology, self-esteem evolves across different stages of life, influenced by various internal and external factors.

• Key Components of Self-Esteem:

  1. Self-Worth: The intrinsic sense of being valuable and worthy.

  2. Self-Competence: The belief in one's abilities and effectiveness.

  3. Self-Acceptance: The recognition and acceptance of one's strengths and weaknesses.

  Development of Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan:

  1. Infancy and Early Childhood:

     • Foundation of Self-Esteem: Positive interactions with caregivers lay the groundwork for self-esteem. Responsive and loving care fosters a sense of security and worth.

     • Exploration and Mastery: Encouragement and support during exploration and play help build a sense of competence and self-worth.

  2. Middle Childhood:

     • Social Comparisons: As children start school, they begin comparing themselves to peers, which can influence their self-esteem. Successes and failures in academic and social settings play a significant role.

     • Feedback and Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement from parents, teachers, and peers supports self-esteem, while negative feedback can undermine it.

  3. Adolescence:

     • Identity Formation: Adolescents explore different aspects of their identity, including academic, social, and personal identities. This exploration can lead to fluctuations in self-esteem.

     • Peer Influence: Peer acceptance and relationships become critical. Positive peer relationships enhance self-esteem, while bullying or rejection can negatively impact it.

     • Body Image: Physical changes during puberty can affect self-esteem, particularly in relation to body image and self-perception.

  4. Adulthood:

     • Stability and Growth: Self-esteem tends to stabilize, although it can still be influenced by life events such as career achievements, relationships, and parenting.

     • Career and Relationships: Success and fulfillment in career and personal relationships contribute to self-esteem. Challenges in these areas can affect one's sense of competence and worth.

     • Parenting: The role of being a parent can enhance self-esteem through the fulfillment of nurturing and supporting one's children.

  5. Later Adulthood:

     • Reflection and Life Review: Older adults may reflect on their life experiences, achievements, and regrets. Positive reflections contribute to self-esteem, while unresolved issues may challenge it.

     • Adaptation to Aging: Physical and cognitive changes, retirement, and loss of loved ones can impact self-esteem. Adaptation and finding new sources of purpose and satisfaction are crucial.

     • Social Support: Strong social networks and support systems play a significant role in maintaining self-esteem in later life.

  Factors Influencing Self-Esteem:

  • Internal Factors: Personality traits, resilience, and coping mechanisms.

  • External Factors: Family dynamics, social interactions, cultural norms, and life experiences.

  Enhancing Self-Esteem:

  • Positive Self-Talk: Encouraging oneself with positive and affirming statements.

  • Setting Achievable Goals: Setting realistic and attainable goals to build a sense of accomplishment.

  • Seeking Support: Building strong, supportive relationships with friends, family, and professionals.

Jean Piaget’s stages

• a theory of cognitive development that describes how children construct a mental model of the world as they grow. Piaget's theory is divided into four main stages, each characterized by different cognitive abilities and ways of thinking.

• 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):

  Characteristics:

  • Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions.

  • They develop object permanence, understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen, heard, or touched. Key Milestones:

  • Reflexive actions transition to intentional actions.

  • Development of motor skills and coordination.

  • Emergence of symbolic thought, such as using a toy to represent something else.

  2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):

  Characteristics:

  • Children begin to use language and think symbolically, but their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric.

  • They struggle with understanding the perspective of others (egocentrism). Key Milestones:

  • Development of language and vocabulary.

  • Pretend play and imagination flourish.

  • Difficulty understanding conservation (the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance).

  3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years):

  Characteristics:

  • Children start to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.

  • They can classify objects and understand reversibility (the idea that objects can be changed and then returned to their original form). Key Milestones:

  • Mastery of conservation tasks (e.g., understanding that the amount of liquid remains the same when poured into different-shaped containers).

  • Ability to perform mathematical operations and solve concrete problems.

  • Improved understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.

  4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up):

  Characteristics:

  • Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

  • They can reason about hypothetical situations and consider future possibilities. Key Milestones:

  • Development of abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning.

  • Ability to think about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues.

  • Improved problem-solving skills and ability to plan for the future.

Questions from class

• Average baby weighs about 7.5 pounds when they are born

• Babies’ sense of sight, when they are born, are their worst

• Object permanence is when babies can understand that an object still exists when it is out of sight

• Babies can start eating solid food around 4-6 months of age, as their digestive systems develop and they begin to show interest in different textures and flavors.

• Children whose parents are authoritative have higher levels of self-esteem and social competence, as this parenting style fosters a supportive and structured environment.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/executive-systems-of-the-brain/cognition-lesson/v/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development