1. Introduction to Memory

• Definition: Memory is essential for knowing personal information (like friends or language). Without it, everything would feel unfamiliar, even oneself.

• Memory's Role: Indicates learning has persisted over time and involves storing and retrieving information.

2. Models of Memory Processing

• Information Processing Model: Like a computer -

  • Encoding: Input (keyboard)

  • Storage: Hard disk

  • Retrieval: Monitor display

• Atkinson-Schiffrin Model (1968):

  • Stages: Sensory Memory → Short-term Memory → Long-term Memory

• Modifications:

  • Some information goes straight to long-term memory.

  • Selected sensory information is actively processed into working memory.

3. Types of Memory

• Working Memory: The updated concept of short-term memory; actively processes auditory, visual-spatial information, and data from long-term memory.

• Long-term Memory: Unlimited capacity, capable of holding information for years.

4. Encoding: How Information Enters Memory

• Automatic Processing: Effortless encoding of:

  • Space: Remembering the location of images on a page.

  • Time: Tracking events in sequence.

  • Frequency: Counting occurrences.

• Effortful Processing: Requires attention, rehearsal, and leads to lasting memories (e.g., learning a phone number).

5. Rehearsal and Memory Effects

• Ebbinghaus’s Rehearsal: Repeated practice improves memory retention.

• Spacing Effect: Information is better retained when rehearsed over time.

• Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall the first and last items on a list more easily.

6. Chunking and Mnemonics

• Chunking: Grouping information into familiar units (e.g., acronyms like ROYGBIV for colors).

• Mnemonics: Memory aids, such as creating acronyms or associating information with familiar concepts.

7. Memory Storage

• Sensory Memory: Short-lived sensory impressions.

  • Iconic Memory: Visual information (~0.5 sec).

  • Echoic Memory: Auditory information (3-4 sec).

  • Haptic Memory: Touch information (<1 sec).

• Working Memory Capacity: Limited to 7±2 chunks and lasts about 20 seconds.

• Long-term Memory Capacity: Vast, essentially unlimited (e.g., animals remembering stored food locations).

8. Types of Long-Term Memory

• Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Facts and experiences that are consciously recalled.

• Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: Skills and actions performed without conscious awareness.

9. Retrieval: Accessing Stored Information

• Recognition: Identifying an item among choices (e.g., multiple-choice tests).

• Recall: Retrieving information with effort (e.g., fill-in-the-blank questions).

• Context Effects: Information is more easily recalled when in the same context as when it was learned.

10. Memory Interference and Construction

• Interference: New information can disrupt the recall of previously learned information.

• Memory Reconstruction: Memories are altered by new information or suggestions, potentially leading to false memories.

11. Improving Memory Techniques

1. Repetition and Spaced Practice: Consistently review information over time.

2. Personalize Information: Make content meaningful to better integrate it into memory.

3. Use Mnemonics: Examples include:

   • Peg Words: Link information to familiar words.

   • Acronyms: Use familiar initials to remember groups (e.g., HOMES for Great Lakes).

4. Activate Retrieval Cues: Mentally reconstruct the learning environment or mood.

5. Avoid Misinformation: Review material promptly to avoid errors from later exposure.

6. Minimize Interference: Test your knowledge regularly to identify gaps.