EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE (AI)

Differential Association/Social Learning Theory

Theoretical Assumptions of Learning Theories:

• Humans are inherently social beings.

• Normative conflict exists in society.

• Individuals learn behaviors, including criminal behavior, through social interactions.

• Behavior is reinforced through social mechanisms such as rewards and punishments.

• Learning occurs within intimate personal groups.

• Some groups promote deviant values that individuals adopt.

Central Tenet of Differential Association Theory:

• Criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others.

• Exposure to delinquent traits increases the likelihood of delinquent behavior.

Sutherland's Development of Differential Association Theory:

• Edwin Sutherland was dissatisfied with the "theoretical chaos" in criminology.

• Sought to create a "general theory" of crime based on social learning principles.

• Published in Principles of Criminology (1939, 1947).

Sutherland's Nine Propositions:

1. Criminal behavior is learned.

2. Learning occurs through communication.

3. Learning takes place in intimate personal groups.

4. Learning includes techniques, motives, rationalizations, and attitudes.

5. Motives are shaped by definitions of legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.

6. Delinquency occurs when definitions favorable to law violation exceed those unfavorable to it.

7. Associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

8. Learning criminal behavior follows the same mechanisms as other learning.

9. Criminal behavior is an expression of needs and values but is not explained by them.

Differentiation of Associations:

• Vary by:

  • Frequency: How often associations occur.

  • Duration: Length of associations.

  • Priority: When in life associations occur.

  • Intensity: Importance of associations.

Definitions in Differential Association Theory:

• Definitions are personal meanings attached to behavior.

• People learn whether behaviors are "good" or "bad."

• Peers are the most influential in shaping definitions.

Importance of Differential Association Theory:

• Contrasted theories focusing on heredity or physiological factors.

• Asserted that criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior.

• Suggested that criminals are not fundamentally different from non-criminals.

Burgess and Akers' Modifications:

• Integrated Sutherland’s theory with behavioral psychology (operant conditioning).

• Emphasized reinforcement and punishment in learning criminal behavior.

Reinforcement in Criminal Behavior:

• Positive reinforcement (e.g., monetary gain, social approval).

• Negative reinforcement (e.g., avoidance of punishment).

• Direct reinforcement (personal experience of rewards/punishments).

• Vicarious reinforcement (observing others being rewarded/punished).

• Imitation (modeling behavior of others).

Sykes and Matza’s Techniques of Neutralization:

• Denial of Responsibility: Shifting blame (e.g., "It’s not my fault").

• Denial of Injury: Claiming no harm was done (e.g., "Nobody got hurt").

• Denial of the Victim: Justifying harm (e.g., "They deserved it").

• Condemnation of the Condemners: Attacking those who judge (e.g., "Cops break the law too").

• Appeal to Higher Loyalties: Claiming moral obligation (e.g., "I did it for my family").

Co-Offending: The Basics

Definition of Co-Offending:

• Crimes committed by two or more individuals.

• Can involve temporary partnerships or stable criminal networks.

Variation in Co-Offending Estimates:

• Differences in study locations, methodologies, and definitions.

• Some studies report up to 80% of crimes involve co-offenders.

• More recent studies report 25-56% of offenses involve co-offenders.

Variation in Who Co-Offends:

• More common in youth and decreases with age.

• Women co-offend more than men but often in smaller groups.

• More likely within racial and ethnic groups.

Reasons for Female Co-Offending:

• Greater social orientation.

• Higher susceptibility to peer pressure.

• Often influenced by male co-offenders.

Role of Race in Co-Offender Selection:

• Offenders are more likely to co-offend with individuals of the same race.

• Mixed-race co-offending groups are rare.

Age and Co-Offending:

• More common in adolescence.

• Declines as offenders gain experience and independence.

Three Perspectives on Why People Co-Offend:

1. Peer Influence Model (learning delinquency through social exposure).

2. Social Selection Model (delinquents self-select into groups).

3. Rational Choice Model (co-offending chosen for strategic benefits).

Weerman’s Theory of Co-Offending as Social Exchange:

• Co-offending is based on the exchange of goods (material/social).

• Exchange goods include services, payment, "catch" (share of profits), appreciation, acceptance, and information.

Co-Offending and Offender Decision-Making

Tremblay’s Theory of Suitable Co-Offenders:

• Co-offenders must be:

  1. Trustworthy (strong bonds, low betrayal risk).

  2. Useful (criminal skills, knowledge).

• Offenders use different strategies to find co-offenders (exclusive, mixed, or avoidance strategies).

Felson’s Convergence Settings Theory:

• Places that facilitate co-offending (e.g., bars, street corners).

• Requirements: frequent gatherings, unrestricted interaction, and time to socialize.

Initiation of Co-Offending:

• Establishing Identity: Recognizing criminal group membership.

• Incremental Signaling: Gradual negotiation toward crime.

• Target Convergence: Spontaneous reaction to an opportunity.

Deindividuation and Diffusion of Responsibility:

• Groups reduce individual accountability.

• Participants feel anonymous, leading to riskier behavior.

• Moral boundaries may weaken in groups.

Violence and Consequences of Co-Offending

Group Hazard Hypothesis:

• More offenders increase the risk of:

  • Mistakes leading to arrests.

  • Someone betraying co-offenders.

The Prisoner’s Dilemma:

• Offenders may betray each other to reduce personal risk.

• Collective rationality can discourage betrayal if future cooperation is valued.

Co-Offending and Violence:

• Co-offending increases violence due to:

  • Social Learning (learning violent behavior from co-offenders).

  • Collective Behavior (peer influence on aggression).

Characteristics Associated with Higher Violence in Co-Offending:

• Young male groups.

• Larger groups.

• Groups with prior violent offenses.

This study guide provides a detailed breakdown of the key concepts, theories, and empirical findings relevant to your exam. Study each section thoroughly, and good luck!