Test 2 textbook

LO 2.5 Ethics in Sexuality Research – Study Notes

Key Ethical Issues:

• Exposing participants to harm

• Research must not harm participants.

• Ethical evaluations involve risk-benefit analysis (e.g., testing new drugs for sexual health issues).

• Confidentiality

• Researchers use codes instead of names to protect identity.

• Surveys can be anonymous.

• Demographic data (e.g., age, race, education) can be included without identifying individuals.

• Data can be destroyed after research is complete.

• Informed consent

• Participants must voluntarily agree to research after receiving full information about risks, benefits, and procedures.

• They must be able to withdraw at any time without penalty.

• Use of deception

• Sometimes necessary in research (e.g., withholding the true purpose).

• Must be justified to ethics boards by proving benefits outweigh potential harm.

• Researchers must debrief participants afterward.

Innovative Canadian Research – Study Findings:

• Research ethics requirements in Canada have become stricter over time.

• A study tested the effects of different consent forms on participant reactions.

• Three types of consent forms were used:

1. Described only the research process.

2. Described both the process and study content.

3. Included a warning about possible negative effects.

• Results:

• No major differences except for studies involving sexually explicit materials.

• Participants given detailed information and warnings rated the materials more negatively than those who only received procedural details.

• Key takeaway:

• Over-disclosure in consent forms can influence participants’ perceptions, possibly affecting study results.

LO 1.4 Thinking Critically About Human Sexuality

Key Elements of Critical Thinking:

• Be skeptical: Do not accept opinions as facts without evaluating evidence. Authority figures and researchers may have biases.

• Examine definitions of terms: Some statements can be true depending on how terms are defined (e.g., “love is blind”).

• Examine assumptions or premises: Arguments rely on assumptions that may not be universally accepted (e.g., “abortion is murder” depends on the definition of “human being”).

• Be cautious with limited evidence: Media and research may overgeneralize findings (e.g., teens who listen to explicit music are more likely to engage in early sexual activity, but correlation is not causation).

• Consider alternative interpretations: Different perspectives can explain the same data in different ways (e.g., teens who listen to sexual lyrics may already be more open to sexual activity).

• Evaluate different perspectives: Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of opposing views helps in forming well-reasoned conclusions.

• Avoid oversimplification: Biological factors influence sexual orientation, but environmental interactions also play a role.

• Don’t overgeneralize: Not all members of a group fit stereotypes (e.g., not all gay men are feminine or lesbians masculine).

LO 2.2 Learning Objectives

• Understand the application of the scientific method in human sexuality studies

• Describe the early research efforts in the field of human sexuality

The Empirical Approach

• Focus on observable research evidence

• Distinction from theoretical approaches found in philosophy, women's and gender studies

• Emphasis on empirical methods for understanding sexuality

Purpose of Sexuality Research

• Aims to describe, explain, predict, or control sexual behavior

• Does not dictate behavior but provides insights for better understanding and decision-making

• Beneficial for professionals in education, social work, psychology, healthcare, etc.

Understanding the Scientific Method

• Involves critical thinking and skepticism

• Researchers question assumptions about sexual behavior

• Acknowledges that knowledge is evolving

• Process consists of systematic evidence gathering and testing assumptions

Steps in the Scientific Method

1. Formulating a Research Question: Based on observations or theory.

2. Framing as Hypothesis: Clear prediction derived from theory/research.

3. Testing the Hypothesis: Empirical tests and controlled observations.

4. Drawing Conclusions: Analyzing data to support or revise hypotheses.

Approaches to Research Methods

• Three primary research approaches: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods.

Quantitative Research

• Systematic investigation with quantifiable measures.

• Involves numerical data and statistical analysis.

• Examples:

  • Relationships between alcohol use and sexual risk-taking

  • Statistical significance indicates meaningful differences in populations.

Qualitative Research

• Aims to understand opinions, feelings, and experiences.

• Utilizes descriptive, non-numerical data.

• Examples in recent studies:

  • Casual sex relationships

  • Sexual development perceptions in children

  • Attitudes of healthcare providers about HIV.

Mixed Methods Approaches

• Combines quantitative and qualitative methods for comprehensive analysis.

The Birth of Sexual Science

• Alfred Kinsey as a pioneering figure in sexual research.

• Conducted extensive interviews with 5300 men and 5940 women (1938-1949).

• Documented American sexual behavior qualitatively and quantitatively.

Kinsey's Methodology

• Used structured interviews to address various sexual experiences.

• Employed group sampling to minimize embarrassment among participants.

• Emphasized confidentiality and objective questioning to encourage openness.

Reliability and Validity of Kinsey's Data

• Evaluated response consistency over time with

LO 1.5  Perspectives on Human Sexuality

• Historical Perspective: Sexual norms and customs have varied significantly across cultures and eras. Religion has played a major role in shaping sexual values.

Sexuality in Ancient Civilizations

• Prehistoric and Early Societies:

• Early art suggests worship of fertility and female reproduction.

• As agriculture developed, phallic worship emerged.

• Incest taboos appeared early but varied across cultures.

• Ancient Hebrews:

• Encouraged marital sex for procreation and pleasure.

• Condemned same-sex relations and adultery (more severe for women).

• Men could divorce easily; polygamy was practiced but uncommon.

• Ancient Greeks:

• Valued family life but also engaged in pederasty and bisexuality.

• Sex work was common at all levels of society.

• Women had limited rights and were largely confined to domestic roles.

• Ancient Romans:

• Emphasized family integrity and discouraged male-male relations.

• Women had more social engagement than Greek women but remained subordinate.

• Many modern sexual terms originate from Latin (e.g., fornication, fellatio).

Religious Influences on Sexuality

• Early Christians:

• Promoted celibacy; sex was for procreation only.

• Condemned extramarital sex, homosexuality, masturbation, and oral/anal sex.

• St. Augustine linked lust with original sin.

• Islam:

• Encouraged marital sex; premarital sex was condemned.

• Allowed polygamy but it is rare in modern practice.

• Hinduism:

• Sexual pleasure seen as a spiritual duty.

• Kama Sutra codified sexual techniques and ideals.

• Became more restrictive over time.

• Taoism (China):

• Viewed sex as a sacred act leading to harmony and longevity.

• Believed men should control ejaculation to preserve energy.

Sexuality in Different Eras

• Medieval Christianity:

• Women were viewed as either sinful (Eve) or virtuous (Virgin Mary).

• Strict sexual morality dominated.

• Protestant Reformation:

• Marriage seen as natural and not just for procreation.

• Luther and Calvin allowed marital sex for pleasure.

• Victorian Era:

• Known for sexual repression, especially for women.

• Sex was considered a duty, not for pleasure.

• Sex work thrived despite moral conservatism.

Scientific Study of Sexuality

• Richard von Krafft-Ebing: Studied sexual “deviations” (e.g., sadomasochism, necrophilia).

• Havelock Ellis: Supported natural sexual desires, including same-sex attraction.

• Sigmund Freud: Developed psychosexual development theory, emphasizing the sex drive.

• Alfred Kinsey: Conducted large-scale studies on American sexual behavior in the 1940s-50s.

20th-Century Changes

• Sexual Revolution (1960s-70s):

• Increased openness about sex, influenced by contraception, media, and liberal policies.

• Sexuality became more about personal choice.

• Feminism:

• Asserted women’s right to sexual pleasure.

• Books like The Feminine Mystique and The Hite Report challenged sexual stereotypes.

• LGBTQ+ Activism:

• Gained momentum after the 1969 Stonewall riots.

• Advocated for equal rights, spurred by the AIDS crisis in the 1980s.

Technology and Sexuality

• Internet and Communication Technology:

• Made sexual content more accessible.

• Facilitated online dating and sexual education.

• Raised concerns about privacy and misinformation.

Critical Thinking About Sexuality Online

• Be skeptical of extravagant claims.

• Check credentials, affiliations, and scientific backing.

• Peer-reviewed sources are the most reliable.

Here’s a concise point-form summary of the document:

Biological Perspective on Sexuality

• Focus: Examines the role of genes, hormones, the nervous system, and physiological factors in sexuality.

• Key Insights:

• Sexual behavior is influenced by biological structures and functions.

• Mechanisms of reproduction, sexual arousal, and response are physiological.

• Some sexual dysfunctions originate from biological abnormalities.

• Advances in biology help in understanding and treating sexual problems.

Cross-Species Perspective

• Comparison with Animal Behavior:

• Many animals exhibit behaviors similar to humans (e.g., male-male, female-female behaviors, oral-genital contact).

• Noncoital activities exist, such as turtles massaging mates and mice nibbling at partners.

• Higher mammals, like primates, rely more on experience and learning than instinct for sexual behavior.

Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives

• Cultural Influence on Sexuality:

• Cultural beliefs shape sexual behaviors and moral values.

• Anthropologists Margaret Mead and Bronisław Malinowski studied gender roles and sexual norms in different societies.

• Mead’s research (1935) suggested that gender roles are socially learned, not