BIOLOGY

Biology Semester Exam Overview

The Biology semester exam is comprehensive (includes all topics covered 1^st and 2^nd quarters).  This review is all of your unit study guides linked together and put in one document.  You already have the been reviewing these concepts as Biology builds upon your previous knowledge.  You should also review your classroom notes, handouts, labs and homework to examine the topic you struggled with.  Do not wait to begin studying!  

Introduction to science and scientific method

 Big Ideas:

• Biological knowledge applies directly to an individual's life, and is important in making personal decisions.

• Biology is studied by using the scientific method.

• Biology is the study of life. In order to distinguish living from nonliving, a series of life determining characteristics must be confirmed.

• Laboratory investigations require attention to safety precautions.

Study Guide Questions:

1. Define independent variable and dependent variable.

Independent variables are unaffected by outside influences. This can include time, which continues despite changes in the dependent variable. This is also usually represented on the x-axis. Dependent variables are affected by the independent variable. This includes temperature and growth,  which change depending on the independent variable. 

2. What is meant by control variables?

Controlled variables are variables that are kept the same throughout the experiment, even when the independent variable is changed. 

3. Define control group and experimental group.

A control group is not affected by the independent variable. For example, giving a group a placebo pill instead of the actual medication. The experimental group is affected by the independent variable. For example, different groups getting different types or amounts of fertilizer. 

4. An entomologist (a scientist who studies insects) is collecting data on butterflies and air temperature.  The entomologist creates a cage with dividers that allow butterflies to pass through.  The butterflies were placed in the cage at 8am and recorded the next day at 8am.  The following results are obtained: 

a. Create a graph of the data.  Be certain to include axis labels and a title (that is descriptive! – one or two words will not suffice).

b. What is the independent variable?

Temperature of each chamber

c. What is the dependent variable?

The number of butterflies in the chamber

d. What would be some control variables that the scientist should be including?  For each one, explain why the entomologist should control that variable.

Type of butterfly – different types of butterflies could react differently to temperature changes

 Biochemistry

 Big Ideas:

• The progress of chemical reactions can be diagrammed properly, and the role of enzymes and energy can be assessed within chemical reactions.

• Features of inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry are compared and contrasted.

• The processes of condensation and hydrolysis, monomers and polymers are applied to the types of organic molecules.

• The 4 major categories of biological molecules (lipid, carbohydrate, nucleic acid and protein) are identified in terms of structure, function, nutritional value and dietary resources.

Study Guide Questions:

1. What is the chemical composition of water?

H20 (2 molecules of hydrogen, 1 molecule of oxygen)

2. What are the unique properties of water?

Water’s polarity…

3. What are polar molecules?  What type of bonds do polar molecules tend to form amongst other polar molecules?

Covalent bonds???

4. What are the four main types of organic macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, lipids, ucleic acids, and proteins. 

5. What are the functions of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins?

6. What are polymers?

7.  What process joins monomers into polymers?  How does it work?

8. What process breaks polymers into monomers?  How does it work?

9. Give an example of when dehydration synthesis would be used.

10. Give an example of when hydrolysis would be used.\

11.  Complete the table below: 

12.  In the generic reaction below, which letters represent reactants?  Products?

A + B à C+D

13. What is activation energy?  How can the activation energy of a reaction be reduced and for what purpose?

14. What are enzymes?

15. What are the reactants an enzyme acts upon called? 

16. What is the active site?

17. What factors can affect the activity of an enzyme?

18. Assume that an enzyme is placed in an unusually acidic environment, causing the enzymes active site to distort and change shape.  Will the enzyme be able accept more substrate?  Why?

 Cell structure

 Big Ideas:

•  The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living organisms.

Study Guide Questions:

1. What are the 3 parts of the cell theory?

2. What is the definition of Prokaryote?  Give an example as well. 

3. What is the definition of Eukaryote?  Give an example as well. 

4. Compare and contrast Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. 

5. What are characteristics of living things?

6. Know which organelles are only in Prokaryotes, only in Eukaryotes, and those in both. 

7. What is the definition of Organelle?

8. What are the two categories of Eukaryotes?

9. Know all of the following organelles and their nickname/function.  (Nucleus, DNA, Endoplasmic Reticulum (both types), Ribosomes, Golgi Body (Golgi Apparatus), Vesicle, Mitochondria, Lysosome, Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm, Chloroplasts, Vacuole, Cell Wall, Centrioles, Cytoskeleton, Peroxisomes) 

Cell Transport

Big Ideas:

• Fluid transport model of cell membrane is related to activities such as diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.

• Transport needs can be analyzed based on daily cell activities.

• Predictions can be made for diffusion and osmosis events given concentration gradients.

• Active and passive transport methods can be differentiated.

• Given solutions that are hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic, predictions can be made for diffusion and osmosis.

Study Guide Questions:

1. What are the 3 functions of the cell membrane

2. What 2 things make up the cell membrane?

3. What does semi-permeable mean?

4. Draw and label the structure of a phospholipid.

5. What does bilayer mean?

6. Draw and label the bilayer.  Be sure to include proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol, and lipids. 

7. Explain why the membrane has to be made of two layers

8. What are the 3 types of proteins?  What are the functions of each?

9. Make sure that you can recognize the structures of the 3 types of proteins.

10. What is a solution?

11. What is the solute?

12. What is the solvent?

13. What is the most common solvent?

14. What is passive transport?

15. What is the definition of diffusion?

16. What are the two types of diffusion?  Explain each.

17. What type of protein does facilitated diffusion use?

18. What is osmosis?

19. How long does diffusion/osmosis occur?

20. Make sure that if you were shown a picture, you would be able to tell where the particles/water will move for diffusion/osmosis.

21. What are the 3 types of solutions?  (list and define)

22. Make sure that you can identify the solvent if shown a picture.

23. Make sure that you can identify the solute if shown a picture.

24. Make sure that you can identify the type of solution based on a diagram.

25. What will often compensate if particles can not pass through the membrane?

26. What is turgor pressure?

27. From the Osmosis Lab, explain what happened to potato sticks in salt water and potato sticks in distilled water.

28. Define Plasmolysis.

29. What is active transport?

30. Explain the example we talked about of active transport of small molecules.

31. What are the two types of active transport of large molecules? (define both)

32. What are the two types of endocytosis? (define both)

Photosynthesis

Big Ideas:

• Energy flows through the living world.

• Plants capture from the sun.

• Animals obtain energy from plants when they eat the plants.

Study Guide Questions:

1. Define autotroph and heterotroph

2. Define metabolism

3. Define Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

4. What is the structure of ATP?

5. What does ATP do?

6. Where does all energy originally come from?

7. Explain, in 1-2 sentences, what Photosynthesis is.

8. What is the equation for Photosynthesis?

9. Draw and label a Thylakoid.

10. Light from the sun contains what color(s) of the visible spectrum and appears what color?

11. Explain the 3 things light can do when it strikes an object?

12. Explain what determines the color an object appears.

13. Visible light with longer wavelengths has how much energy?

14. Visible light with shorter wavelengths has how much energy?

15. What are pigments?

16. What is the primary pigment contained in plants?

17. What color(s) does this pigment absorb?  Reflect?. 

18. Where does the Light reaction occur?

19. What are the reactants for the light reaction?

20. What are the two proteins that the electron moves through in the light reaction (List them in the order in which they occur)?

21. What are the products of the light reaction?

22. Where does the Calvin Cycle occur?

23. What are the reactants for the Calvin Cycle?

24. What are the products of the Calvin Cycle?

25. What factors affect Photosynthesis?  Explain how each factor affects the process. 

 Cellular Respiration

Big Ideas:

• Energy flows through the living world.

• Plants capture energy from the sun.

• Animals obtain energy from plants when they eat the plants.

Study Guide Questions:

1. Define metabolism

2. What is a metabolic pathway?

3. Define catabolic and anabolic.  Give an example of each.

4. What are the advantages of using ATP for energy?

5. What is breathing?  What is Cellular Respiration?  How are the two related?

6. Define aerobic and anaerobic.

7. Identify which part(s) of Cellular Respiration are aerobic and which parts are anaerobic. 

8. What is the balanced equation for Cellular Respiration?

9. Why can’t glucose be directly used for energy?

10. State the 3 steps (with locations) of Cellular Respiration in the cell.

11. Compare and contrast Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration. 

Cell Cycle and Division

 Big Ideas:

• Mitosis is the method by which cells replicate themselves identically to create more mass.  Meiosis, on the other hand, creates diversity among gametes, and ensures that the chromosome number stays constant from one generation to the next.

•  Cell differentiation is the means by which a multi-cellular organism can divide labor to provide for the greater energy needs of a large organism.

• Interphase and mitosis make up the cell cycle.  Malfunctions in the cell cycle can result in cancer.

 Study Guide Questions:

1. Explain the reasons that cells have to divide.

2. What are the parts of the cell cycle? 

3. State and explain the 3 parts of Interphase.

4. What is the centromere? 

5. List and explain what happens in each of the 4 phases of Mitosis?

6. Draw out what the cell looks like at the end of each phase of Mitosis.

7. What is cytokinesis and when does it occur?

8. Define Chromatin, Chromosome, Homologous Chromosomes, and Sister Chromatids.

9. How many chromosomes do you have in every cell?

10. What are the results of Mitosis?

11. How are cancer cells different from regular cells?

 Cell Reproduction – Meiosis  

 Big Ideas:

• Chromosomes consist of thousands of genes, which are segments of DNA, each relating to a specific trait. 

• The majority of cells in an organism contain the diploid number of chromosomes, but gametes contain the haploid number of chromosomes.

• When cells divide, the genetic information in the chromosomes must be passed on to each new cell.

• Somatic cells produce identical diploid daughter cells by the process of mitosis; Germ cells produce haploid gametes by the process of meiosis.

• Mistakes can occur during the process of meiosis.  Chromosomal errors are often visible through karyotyping.

Study Guide Questions:

1. What is meiosis?

2. How is meiosis different then mitosis?

3. Why do we need meiosis?

4. What does n mean?

5. What does 2n mean?

6. What are germ cells?

7. What are the two parts of meiosis?

8. How many chromosomes do you get from each parent?

9. What is crossing over?  When does it occur and what does it allow?

10. What is a tetrad?

11. What are the results of meiosis?

12. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

13. What does diploid mean? 

14. What does haploid mean?

15. What sex chromosomes can a mother pass on to her offspring? 

16. What sex chromosomes can a father pass on to his offspring? 

17. What sex is an individual with the sex chromosomes XX?

18. What sex is an individual with the sex chromosomes XY?

19. Explain what would happen if sex cells were diploid instead of haploid.

20. What are stem cells and how do they work?

21. What is a karyotype?

22. What are some chromosomal diseases?

23. What is non-disjunction?