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War of 1812: 

• The US has declared war about 5 times in the last 230 years

• It was very important in 1812 because it was America’s first declared war 

• Also known as “The Second Revolutionary War”. 

• A very important reason for this war was the British impressment of American sailors, where they would be kidnapped and forced into British servitude 

• This disrupted American shipping and it was a huge violation of American sovereignty Many British sailors on American ships would pretend to be American in order to avoid getting caught with the British and being forced into the Napoleonic Wars 

• Britain's impressment policy allowed them to disrupt American shipping to France and get more British sailors to strengthen their war effort

• By the beginning of the war, more than 400,000 Americans had moved into territories west of the original 13 c colonies 

• They quickly outnumbered American Indians by a big margin 

• Many Native Americans did not like this at all, while others decided to adopt civilized practices of written languages and slavery.

  • “ASSIMILATE-the process of becoming  as similar to something.”

• Many Indians wanted to resist against the Americans, where Tecumseh and Tenskwatwa decided to “rebel” against.

• American tried to take Canada, where they thought the Canadians would rush to join them. However, they did not 

• The US might’ve succeeded if they had taken Montreal, but they didn’t want to march through New York Because there were many Federalists who opposed the war 

• Instead, they decided to focus  on the West, where fighting went back and forth 

• The British had many great victories by burning the White house and overseeing destruction of many cities. 

• The Treaty of Ghent had many issues regarding unrealistic situations 

  • It was awkward for Great Britain to carve out pieces of the US, and then tell Russia & Prussia that they couldn’t take pieces of Europe for themselves to celebrate their victory in the Napoleonic Wars 

  • There were no provisions in the treaty about impressment or free trade. The Treaty basically returned everything to the “status quo” 

• Neither America nor Britain won the war 

• However, Indians suffered significant casualties and gave up even more territory than wanted 

• The War launched Andrew Jackson’s career and solidified the settlement and conquest of land east of the Mississippi River 

• Lack of success in Canada reinforced Canadian nationalism while also ensuring that instead of being one great nation, Canada would be alone

•  War also spelled the end of the Federalist party, which tried in 1815 with the Hartford Convention to change the constitution 

  •  NATIONALISM (PRIDE) SHOWED AMERICA IS A NATION ALL ON OWN.

American Economic Development: 

•  The US developed into two distinct cultures: South and North..

• The South expanded agriculture due to technological advancements and transportation improvements.

• The North developed a mercantile economy centered on business, industry, and trade.

• Both cultures were divided into social and economic classes.

• The North had the very wealthy, middle class, and urban poor.

• Urban poor were mostly immigrants, mostly from Ireland, who became laboring classes.

• Struggles between the federal government and states continued, with states insisting on their right to disregard laws they disagreed with.

• Two financial panics in 1819 and 1837 suggested the necessity of a strong national bank.

The American System 

• Congress refused to renew the Bank of the United States charter in 1811, leading to state banks' inability to repay the War of 1812 debt.

• Speaker Henry Clay proposed the American System, a solution to the economic crisis.

• The system included a national bank, protective tariffs on imports, and a national transportation system.

Transportation 

• National transportation system included paved interstate roads, canals, and railroads to connect agricultural and industrial regions for economic benefits.

• Funded by Tariff Act income, National Road construction began in 1815, and the Erie Canal in 1817, providing a vital trade route.

• Railroads started around 1830, rapidly advancing in speed; by 1869, they linked New York to California.

• This boom expanded markets, facilitating trade beyond localities, leading to mass production, factory growth, and increased town sizes. 

The Tariff Acts 

• A tariff is a tax on imported goods aimed at encouraging local purchasing.

• Protective tariffs increase import prices to benefit domestic economies, particularly post-War of 1812.

• British goods were cheaper, causing low sales of American products.

• The Tariff of 1816 was proposed by President Madison to raise revenue for internal improvements.

• Northeasterners supported it while Southerners and Westerners opposed it due to increased costs.

• The tariff set a 25% tax on manufactured goods, angering Southern planters fearing retaliation from Europe.

• A new Tariff Act in 1828 doubled earlier rates, leading to Southern outrage and claims of state rights infringement.

• John C. Calhoun's doctrine of nullification argued states could refuse unconstitutional federal laws.

• South Carolina led resistance, threatening secession until a compromise reduced tariffs over ten years, easing tensions during the Nullification Crisis.

The National Bank

• In 1816, President Madison signed a bill for the Second Bank of the United States to establish a national currency and fund federal services.

• In 1818, the bank recalled loans, causing the Panic of 1819, leading to foreclosures, business closures, and a prolonged economic depression.

Era of Good Feelings (from video and questions) 

• Took place from 1815 to 1824 

• James Monroe was the president at the time 

• Federalists were the dominant party during this time 

• Federalist party opposed and held Hartford Convention towards War of 1812 

• James Monroe aimed to eliminate the Federalist Party 

John Marshall Cases 

• Fletcher vs Peck 

  • March 16th, 1810 

  • Originated from series of events 

  • Legal Precedent: Important of judicial review over state’s power, states can’t interfere with private Contracts Contract Clause Article 1 Clause 10 

• McCulloch vs Maryland 

  •  Legal Precedent: Congress has implied powers 

• Dartmouth College vs Woodward 

  • Legal Precedent: State government could not interfere with private institutions 

• Cohen vs Virginia 

  • South Carolina authority to review state court judgment in cases involving fed law or constitution, Supremacy Clause, fed gov more power than state gov

  •  Legal Precedent: Palate Jurisdiction

• Gibbons vs Ogden 

  •  Legal Precedent: 

Hartford Convention 

• On October 18, 1814, the Massachusetts legislature called for a convention to discuss constitutional protections.

• All New England states were invited, with delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.

• On December 15, 1814, Federalist  elegates met in Hartford, Connecticut, to discuss the impact of the War of 1812.

• The main focus was to propose constitutional changes to prevent future crises.

• Proposed amendments included prohibiting embargoes of more than 60 days and barring the election of a president from the same state twice in succession.

• The convention agreed to its demands on January 4, 1815, and adjourned the following day.

• The convention's representatives were unaware of the peace agreement in Ghent, Belgium, leading to a political fallout

• Basically unhappy with the War of 1812, so they were rethinking about going back to England 

The Great Triumvirate

• Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun were influential legislators from the War of 1812 to the early 1850s.

• Each represented a specific region and advocated for its key interests.

• They served in the House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, and served as secretary of state.

• Despite ambitions to become president, they were thwarted.

• Their rivalries and alliances led to the Compromise of 1850, a temporary solution to slavery in America.

• Their deaths occurred between the spring of 1850 and the fall of 1852.

• Alliances & Rivalries: 

  • First formed in the House of Representatives in 1813.

  • Opposition to President Andrew Jackson's policies led to a loose alliance.

  • Joined Senate in 1832, opposing the Jackson administration.

  • Opposition varied, with rivals being more common.

  • Known for cordial respect, not close friends.

• Public Acclaim for the Powerful Senators:

  • Clay, Webster, and Calhoun's stature increased post-Jackson's two terms as Presidents appeared weaker.

  • Public speaking became a significant intellectual event in the 1830s and 1840s.

  • Senate speeches by Clay, Webster, and Calhoun were considered notable public events.

  • Crowds gathered for speeches, with transcripts becoming popular newspaper items.

  • The Compromise of 1850 speech by Clay and Webster was a major event.

  • Calhoun's death occurred after his speech, while Henry Clay and Daniel Webster died later in the same year.

The Missouri Compromise

• In 1819, a financial panic hit the U.S., causing unemployment, bank failures, foreclosures, and falling agricultural prices.

• Popular protests erupted, with debtors seeking "stay laws" and the end of debtors' prisons; manufacturing interests wanted protection from foreign imports.

• Southerners blamed high tariffs for hindering trade, and demands grew for democratizing state constitutions and limiting bank power.

• Amid the panic, a slavery crisis emerged linked to Missouri's statehood application, which challenged the boundary between free and slave territories.

• Representative James Tallmadge's amendment to restrict slavery in Missouri passed the House but was defeated in the Senate.

• The 1819 Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, prohibiting slavery north of the 36° 30' latitude.

• Despite a temporary victory for Southerners, tensions over slavery and sectionalism persisted, signaling future conflicts.

• Ohio River formed boundary between free states and slave states 

• No clear line west of Mississippi demarcating boundary between free and slave territory

James Monroe (from questions)

• James Monroe was regarded as an effective chief executive prior to his presidency, surpassing predecessors like Madison and Adams.

• He adopted a pragmatic approach to politics, demonstrating strong executive leadership.

• Despite his efforts, Monroe's effectiveness was often overlooked compared to contemporaries like Harry Truman.

• He was hardworking and energetic.

• Entered College of William & Mary in 1774

• Left to serve as lieutenant in Virginia regiment in February 1776

• Fought in the Battle of Trenton; sustained a severe wound

• Promoted to captain for heroism; participated in battles of Germantown, Monmouth, and Brandywine

• Studied law under Thomas Jefferson; introduced to James Madison

• (1782) Monroe began his election in the Virginia legislature 

• (1783) Monroe named to the Congress of the Confederation, where he served three years 

  • Aka the successor body to the Continental Congress 

• (1790) Virginia legislature appointed him to the U.S. Senate 

• Monroe began the leading Republican of that specific body 

• Decided to join James Madison in opposition to Hamilton’s economic plan 

• (1794) Washington named Monroe the minister to France in order to address concerns in war with Britain 

• (1799) the Virginia legislature named Monroe to the first of 3 one-year terms as governor 

• (1803) Monroe appointed as envoy to France by Thomas Jefferson 

• During his time in France, Monroe received words that Jefferson appointed him minister of Great Britain too 

• (1811) Madison named Monroe as secretary of state

• (1814) Madison placed Monroe in charge of the War Department 

• (1816) Monroe was chosen as a Republican presidential candidate and won (w/ 84% electoral votes) 

• James Monroe appointed a strong, geographically balanced cabinet.

• Key members included William H. Crawford, Benjamin Crowninshield, William Wirt, and John Quincy Adams.

• Historians admire their impactful contributions.

• Had very important leadership qualities such as good public communication, an organizational capacity, good political skill, a policy vision, cognitive style, and emotional intelligence 

Erie Canal (from video & questions) 

• DT Clinton, NY mayor and future governor, spent 10 years promoting a canal project; Jefferson and Madison opposed funding.

• Canal dug by hand, 363 miles long, 40 ft wide, 4 ft deep, completed in 8 years with 83 locks.

• The canal significantly improved travel time and costs, reducing 6-week trips to under one week for 1/10 the cost, boosting Rochester's industry.

• Erie Canal accelerated US western expansion, connecting and developing the isolated Midwest region.

• Canal expanded to double width and depth by 1862, facilitating constant travel and aiding slaves seeking freedom.

• Slaves traveled along canals seeking freedom, supported by figures like Frederick Douglass.

• Seneca Falls hosted the first women's rights convention.

• The canal disrupted Native American lands, causing displacement for commerce.

• The Iron Horse competed with the Erie Canal for transportation efficiency and speed.

• The Erie Canal remains popular today, valued for its historic significance and leisure activities.

• Celebrate Erie Canal for enabling transport of people, goods, ideas, showcasing American ingenuity.

PANIC: 

• LASTS SHORTEST AMOUNT OF TIME 

• Generally very quick w/ smallest effect 

• Least damaging 

RECESSION: 

• LONGER THAN A PANIC (ABT 20 MONTHS TO A YEAR)

• Affect economy very negatively

DEPRESSION: 

• LONGEST (MANY YEARS LONG)

  • Ex: Great Depression 

• Has a very bad effect on country and even the world 

Panic - Recession - Depression:

•  Mid-1810s: U.S. had 7 million residents, agriculture-based economy, scarce specie, extensive barter.

• Cotton and wool mainly for export; Boston, New York, Philadelphia as trade hubs.

• National debt high from War of 1812 and Louisiana Purchase; state banks issued paper money, payments suspended in 1814.

• Expansionist Western banks issued excessive notes, but Northeast banks remained cautious.

• Creation of the Second Bank aimed for a uniform currency but undermined credibility by accepting IOUs.

• Loose credit spurred investment in infrastructure and agriculture, profits initially driven by demand for cotton and wheat.

• Specific payments resumed nominally by 1817.

• By 1818, Huntsville thrived due to fertile cotton soil and access to key waterways.

• Transportation was vital for valuing frontier land, attracting farmers and speculators.

• However, U.S. cotton prices crashed in January 1819 as British investors turned to Indian cotton, coupled with improved European harvests.

• This triggered a recession, leading to plummeting land values in Alabama.

• Tighter monetary policies from the Bank caused further price declines, bankrupting banks and homeowners and increasing unemployment.

• Tensions around central banking emerged, with figures like Andrew Jackson and Thomas Hart Benton opposing perceived excessive control, a debate echoing today.

Panic of 1819 (causes) 

•  Loose Credit & Lax Standards 

  • Mid-1810s, the nation was sparsely populated @ 7 million inhabitants 

  • Economy was agricultural-based 

  • Majority of cotton & wool produced for export w/ Boston, NY, and Philly 

  • Nation was in debt 

    • Borrowed heavily to finance War of 1812 & debts for Louisiana Purchase 

  • State banks issued own paper money and specific payments suspended in 1814 

  • Expansionist Western banks issued notes beyond ability to redeem them in gold/silver 

  • Banks in Northeast remained conservative 

    • Sort of against lending to the government 

• The Second Bank of the United States 

  • Manu argued for creation of 2nd national bank bc the expansionist note issuance led to many chaotic money situations 

  • 2nd bank was chartered with primary goal to create uniform national currency by printing paper money convertible in specie 

  • But loose monetary & credit policies spurred investment in transportation infrastructure (construction/shipbuilding)

  • Demand for transport to deliver goods to market was huge 

  • Specie payments resumed by 1817 on normal basis of state banks 

• Unlikely Epicenter of the Boom

  • Economy was growing fast in 1818 

  • Transportation was key to make frontier land valuable 

  • Water was key to transportation 

  • Farmers and speculators competed for land (drove up prices) 

  • US cotton prices plummeted January 1819 after British investors substituted to Indian cotton 

  • Maladies in turn spread to farming/manufacturing which increased unemployment 

• Likely Target for the Bust 

  • Nation was leery for national bank with endless power to manipulate money supply 

  • Second National Bank of US was attacked by expansionists & sound money opponents 

  • The debate over central banking & concern over deflation/inflation continued 200 years later 

Monroe Doctrine 

•  The Monroe Doctrine was expressed during President Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress

• The Russian Imperial Government proposed a negotiation regarding rights and interests on the northwest coast, leading to instructions for the U.S. minister in St. Petersburg.

• The United States aims to strengthen its friendship with the Emperor through this amicable negotiation process.

• The U.S. asserts that the American continents should no longer be considered for colonization by European powers due to their independent status.

• At a previous session, efforts in Spain and Portugal to improve societal conditions were noted, though the outcomes were unexpected.

• The U.S. maintains a friendly interest in the liberty and happiness of people in Europe but refrains from involvement in European conflicts.

• U.S. policy is to respond only when its rights are threatened, contrasting with the political systems of European allied powers.

• The U.S. expresses a commitment to defend its political system, achieved through significant sacrifice and democratic values.

• Any attempt by European powers to extend their system into the Americas would be viewed as a threat to U.S. peace and security.

• The U.S. continues to uphold neutrality regarding conflicts between independent governments in Latin America and Spain while maintaining their recognition and support for independence.

• Recent events in Spain and Portugal highlight Europe's instability.

• The allied powers’ intervention in Spain’s internal affairs indicates this unrest.

• This situation raises concern for all independent nations, especially the United States.

• The US policy towards Europe emphasizes non-interference in internal matters.

• The US recognizes existing governments as legitimate and seeks friendly relations.

•  Any extension of European political systems to the Americas threatens US peace.

• There is skepticism that neighboring countries would voluntarily adopt European models.

• The US must respond to direct intervention; remaining indifferent is not an option.

• Spain lacks the strength to regain control of its former colonies in the Americas.

• The US maintains a policy of allowing nations to resolve their own issues, hoping for similar behavior from other powers.

• On December 2, 1823, President Monroe asserted the American continents would not be open to future European colonization.

• This statement became a crucial part of the Monroe Doctrine, a foundation of US foreign policy.

•  Secretary of State John Quincy Adams significantly influenced the doctrine's formulation.

• Concerns about Russian territorial claims in North America motivated Adams and Monroe's stance against European colonization in the Americas.

• Situation in Central and South America is precarious due to ongoing revolutions against Spanish rule.

• Concerns arise that Spain and France may attempt to reassert control in these regions.

• The British aim to see the end of Spanish colonialism to remove trade restrictions.

• British Foreign Secretary George Canning proposed a joint warning from London and Washington against European intervention in Latin America.

• Adams opposed the proposal, believing it limited U.S. territorial ambitions regarding Cuba and Texas.

• He questioned why the U.S. should align with British interests

The points he made in the message to congress were as follows:

1) The United States would not get involved in European affairs. 

2) The United States would not interfere with existing European colonies in the Western Hemisphere. 

3) No other nation could form a new colony in the Western Hemisphere. 

4) If a European nation tried to control or interfere with a nation in the Western Hemisphere, the United States would view it as a hostile act against this nation. 

The Missouri Compromise 

• In 1819, a financial panic swept across the United States. Unemployment mounted, banks failed, mortgages were foreclosed, and agricultural prices fell by half. 

• Manufacturing interests called for increased protection from foreign imports, while many Southerners blamed high tariffs for reducing the flow of international trade. 

• The panic also led to demands for the democratization of state constitutions, an end to restrictions on voting and officeholding, and hostility toward banks and other "privileged" corporations.

• Crisis over slavery 

  •  The crisis was ignited by Missouri's application for statehood and it involved the status of slavery west of the Mississippi River.

• Representative James Tallmadge (1778-1853) of New York provoked the crisis in February 1819 by introducing an amendment that would prohibit the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and provide for the emancipation of the children of slaves at the age of 25. 

• Compromise ultimately resolved the crisis of 1819. The Senate narrowly voted to admit Missouri as a slave state.

•  To preserve the sectional balance, it also voted to admit Maine, which had previously been a part of Massachusetts, as a free state, and to prohibit the formation of any further slave states from the territory of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36” 30 north latitude. 

• Southerners won a victory in 1820, but they paid a high price. While many states would eventually be organized from the Louisiana Purchase north of the compromise line, only two (Arkansas and part of Oklahoma) would be formed from the southern portion

•  If the South was to defend its political power against an antislavery majority, it had but two options in the future. 

  • It would either have to forge new political alliances with the North and West

  • Or it would have to acquire new territory in the Southwest--inevitably reigniting northern opposition to the further expansion of slavery.

Major Presidential Foreign Policy Doctrines:

• George Washington - 1796 

  • Isolationism 

• Monroe Doctrine - 1823

  • Moving to protect American hegemony in the Western Hemisphere, President James Monroe declared that henceforth the U.S. would stop any European nation from interfering in the affairs of any country not already colonized. 

• Polk Doctrine - 1845 

• Roosevelt Corollary - 1904 

  • The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine declared that the U.S. would act as the policeman of the Western hemisphere if a country doing business with Europe was guilty of “chronic wrongdoing or impotence.”

• Truman Doctrine - 1945 

  • To suppress the possibility of a communist insurgency in Greece and Turkey, President Truman lobbied congress to provide military and economic aid which amounted to $400 million. 

• Eisenhower Doctrine - 1957 (protect Middle East from Communism) 

• Nixon Doctrine - 1969 (removing Asian allies off aid in Vietnam war)

• Carter Doctrine - 1980 (protect Persian Gulf)

• Powell(not a president) Doctrine - 1990 (overwhelming force)

• Bush Doctrine - 2001 

  • The Bush Doctrine declares it is the policy of the US government to after all terrorists with a global reach and the states which harbor them. A key element is the right of the US to preempt an attack on the US in order to “confront the worst threats before they emerge.”

WHAT COULD POSSIBLE SHORT RESPONSES BE FOR TEST???

What were the circumstances that resulted in the Missouri Compromise, and what was it?

In 1819, Missouri asked Congress for admission as a slave state, as the area was fertile and contained sufficient population to warrant statehood. The House of Representatives passed the Tallmadge Amendment, which stated that no more slaves should be brought into Missouri and also provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to enslaved parents already there. Angry, slaveholding Southerners saw in the Tallmadge amendment, which they eventually managed to defeat in the Senate, a threat to sectional balance. Furthermore, Missouri was the first state entirely west of the Mississippi River to be made out of the Louisiana Purchase, and its emancipation amendment might set a damaging precedent for all the rest of the area. If Congress could abolish slavery in Missouri, it could also do the same in the South. The deadlock was broken in 1820 by the American solution of a group of 3 compromises, whom Henry Clay played a key role in. In the Missouri Compromise, Congress eventually declared Missouri a slave state, and admitted Maine (once a part of Massachusetts), as a separate state. While Missouri was permitted to retain slaves, all future bondage was prohibited in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36 30 line, the southern boundary of Missouri. Inevitably, neither the North or South were very displeased, nor completely happy about the compromise to last 34 years after its creation.

What motivated the creation of the Monroe Doctrine, what were its main assertions and how did it change US  foreign policy?

President James Monroe, with advice from Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, issued the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 in response to fears that Europeans might try to recolonize newly independent nations in Latin America. Monroe warned European powers to refrain from seeking any new territories in the Americas. Monroe stated that the era of colonization in the Americas was over, European powers could keep what they had but could not seize or acquire more territories, a warning directed to Russia in the Northwest. The United States, concerned about European interference so close to its borders, used the doctrine to declare that the Western Hemisphere was no longer open to colonization by European powers.  European powers were offended by the Monroe Doctrine in part due to America’s puny military strength to back it up, but their hands were tied, and any invasion plans would be stopped by the British navy. Pres. Polk revived it (1845), and by mid century it became an important national dogma. The doctrine was an expression of post-1812 nationalism energizing the U.S., the most famous long-lived offspring of that nationalism, giving voice to the spirit of patriotism while deepening the illusion of isolationism from European danger. All in all, the Doctrine showcased U.S. interventionism in the country.

Foreign policy refers to the strategies and approaches adopted by a country regarding its interactions with other nations. Before the War of 1812, the United States primarily pursued a policy of neutrality and isolationism. This approach limited U.S. involvement in international conflicts and was influenced by George Washington's farewell address, which emphasized avoiding entangling alliances with foreign powers and focusing on domestic concerns.

After the War of 1812, the U.S. adopted a more assertive stance through the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. This doctrine declared that any attempts by European powers to colonize or interfere in the Americas would be viewed as hostile acts. This marked a significant shift in American foreign policy as it asserted U.S. interests in the Western Hemisphere and set a foundation for future expansionism and interventionism.

In the modern context, U.S. foreign policy is multifaceted, encompassing diplomacy, military engagement, trade agreements, and the maintenance of international alliances, such as NATO. It emphasizes promoting democracy, human rights, and addressing global challenges like terrorism, climate change, and economic stability. Overall, American foreign policy has evolved significantly from its early isolationist tendencies to a proactive role on the global stage, reflecting historical influences and current international needs.