test 2

Shifts from the Dark Ages to the Renaissance

1. Dark Ages Impact:

   • a.) Destruction: The Dark Ages saw the decline of Roman infrastructure, loss of classical knowledge, and a decrease in literacy.

   • b.) Invasions: European society was disrupted by invasions from Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens.

2. Feudalism Hierarchy:

   • Structure: At the top was the King, followed by powerful nobles (lords and barons), knights, and at the bottom, peasants (serfs).

3. Changes in Christianity During the Papacy:

   • a.) Shift of Power: The Papacy gained significant power, and there was a rise in intolerance towards other religions.

   • b.) Intellectualism: Monasteries became centers of learning, preserving knowledge through scriptoriums.

4. Crusades:

   • Success: Stimulated trade, economic growth, and cultural exchange.

   • Failure: Failed to maintain long-term control over the Holy Land and led to significant loss of life.

5. Secular Education and Scholasticism:

   • The rise of universities and demand for secular education led to scholasticism, merging classical philosophy with Christian theology.

6. Philosophical Contributions:

   • a.) Pierre Abelard: Developed the dialectical method.

   • b.) Hildegard of Bingen: Contributed to mysticism and visions.

   • c.) Roger Bacon: Advocated for empiricism and scientific experimentation.

   • d.) Thomas Aquinas: Synthesized faith and reason, known for his work in natural theology.

   • e.) William of Ockham: Known for Ockham's Razor, a simple solution is usually the best.

7. Thomas Aquinas’s Faculties of the Soul:

   • Aquinas identified faculties such as vegetative (growth and nutrition), sensitive (sensation and movement), and rational (intellect and will).

8. Renaissance Figures and Their Contributions:

   • Petrarch: Father of Humanism, focused on classical texts.

   • Leonardo da Vinci: Emphasis on empirical observation and anatomy.

   • Andreas Vesalius: Pioneered the study of human anatomy through dissection.

   • Galileo Galilei: Advocate of the scientific method, made significant contributions to astronomy.

Post-Renaissance and the Rise of Scientific Inquiry

1. Shift from Church to Natural Science:

   • Increased emphasis on observation, experimentation, and empirical evidence over religious doctrine.

2. Learned Societies:

   • Formed to facilitate knowledge sharing, such as the Royal Society, promoting scientific research.

3. Philosophies of Age of Reason:

   • Rationalism: Emphasis on reason as the primary source of knowledge.

   • Empiricism: Focus on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge.

4. Francis Bacon’s Empirical Method:

   • Bacon emphasized inductive reasoning, the importance of experimentation, and skepticism of a priori reasoning.

5. Newton’s Empirical Rules:

   • Newton's rules emphasized systematic experimentation, mathematical descriptions of nature, and empirical verification.

6. Natural Science Contributions:

   • a.) William Harvey: Discovered the circulation of blood.

   • b.) Robert Boyle: Formulated Boyle's Law regarding the properties of gases.

   • c.) Marcello Malpighi: Early work in microscopic anatomy.

   • d.) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: Father of microbiology, discovered microorganisms.

7. Spinoza’s Identity Position:

   • Spinoza posited that the mind and body are two aspects of a single substance, challenging Cartesian dualism.

8. Descartes’s Rationalism:

   • Emphasized the use of reason to develop knowledge, distinguishing between the mind (thinking substance) and the body (extended substance).

The French Tradition

1. Three Traditions:

   • Sensationalism: Knowledge comes from sensory experience.

   • Voluntarism: Emphasis on the will and human agency.

   • Positivism: Focus on observable phenomena and scientific approach.

2. Zeitgeist Influences:

   • Influences included advancements in art, science, and philosophy, shaping intellectual thought.

3. Sensationalism Contributions:

   • a.) Etienne Bonnot Condillac: Sensory experience as the basis of knowledge.

   • b.) Charles Bonnet: Explored sensory systems and their impact on perception.

   • c.) Julien Offroy de La Mettrie: Mechanistic view of humans.

   • d.) Claude Adrien Helvetius: Emphasized the role of the environment on human development.

   • e.) Pierre Cabanis: Linked mental processes to physical states.

The British and German Traditions

1. Roles of Mind in Human Behavior:

   • British empiricism (experience-based knowledge) vs. German rationalism (reason-based knowledge).

2. Influences:

   • Cultural and scientific advancements shaping philosophical traditions.

3. Thomas Hobbes:

   • Advocated for a materialistic view of humans, differing from French sensationalism.

4. John Locke:

   • Proposed the mind as a blank slate (tabula rasa), developing through experience and reflection.

Scientific Breakthroughs of the 19th Century

1. Bell-Magendie Law:

   • Differentiation of sensory and motor nerves, foundational to neuroscience.

2. Mueller’s Law of Specific Nerve Energies:

   • Each sensory nerve produces a specific sensation, regardless of how it is stimulated.

3. Cajal’s Neuron Doctrine:

   • Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system, crucial for modern neuroscience.