Social Psych Exam 2

1. Self (Part 1)

Intersectionality

Definition: Intersectionality is the theory that people's social identities (such as race, gender, class, and sexuality) are interconnected and create overlapping systems of advantage or disadvantage. This concept helps explain how multiple forms of oppression or privilege intersect to shape an individual's experience.

Self Esteem

Definition: Self-esteem refers to a person’s subjective evaluation of their own worth. It encompasses how we feel about ourselves, including feelings of self-respect, pride, and value. High self-esteem often correlates with positive emotions and a sense of self-worth, while low self-esteem can lead to feelings of inadequacy or insecurity.

Self-Discrepancy Theory – Ought self vs. Ideal self

Definition: This theory, proposed by Edward Tory Higgins, suggests that we experience emotional discomfort when there is a discrepancy between our actual self and two other self-concepts:

Ideal Self: The person you aspire to be, based on personal desires and goals.

Ought Self: The person you believe you should be, based on societal norms, obligations, and expectations.

The larger the gap between the actual self and the ought or ideal self, the more likely a person will experience feelings of anxiety, guilt, or disappointment.

Looking Glass Self Theory

Definition: The Looking Glass Self theory, introduced by Charles Horton Cooley, posits that our self-concept is shaped by how we believe others perceive us. It includes three key components:

How we imagine others perceive us.

How we imagine others evaluate us.

How we feel about ourselves based on others' judgments.

Essentially, our self-identity is formed through reflection on how others see us.

Upward vs. Downward Comparisons

Upward Comparison: Comparing oneself to someone who is perceived as better off (e.g., more successful, happier). This can either motivate improvement or lead to feelings of inadequacy.

Downward Comparison: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse off (e.g., less successful, less happy). This can boost self-esteem but may prevent personal growth.

2. Self (Part 2)

Cognitive Dissonance

Definition: Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort that occurs when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. This inconsistency creates tension, and individuals are motivated to reduce the dissonance, often by changing one of the conflicting beliefs or behaviors to restore balance.

Locus of Control

Definition: Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control the events that affect their lives:

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one’s actions and decisions directly influence outcomes.

External Locus of Control: The belief that outcomes are determined by external forces, such as luck, fate, or other people.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards or outcomes, such as money, praise, or recognition.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal factors, such as personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or the inherent value of the activity itself.

3. Social Influence

Albert Bandura – Theory and Experiment

Theory: Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory emphasizes that people learn new behaviors by observing others, especially if the behavior is modeled and reinforced. This theory suggests that cognitive factors play a role in learning, and learning can occur without direct reinforcement.

Experiment: Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment showed that children who observed adults acting aggressively toward a doll were more likely to imitate this aggressive behavior, illustrating the power of observational learning.

Milgram’s Experiment

Overview: Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment explored how far individuals would go in obeying an authority figure, even when the orders involved inflicting harm on another person.

Key Finding: The experiment showed that many people would administer what they believed were painful shocks to others when instructed by an authoritative figure, suggesting that authority can compel individuals to act against their own ethical beliefs.

Asch’s Experiment

Overview: Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment tested how people would respond to group pressure, specifically whether individuals would conform to a group’s incorrect answer to a simple question (e.g., which line matches the length of the standard line).

Key Finding: The experiment revealed that people would often conform to group consensus even when it was clearly incorrect, demonstrating the strong influence of group pressure on individual behavior.

Obedience vs. Conformity

Obedience: Obedience occurs when a person follows direct orders or instructions from an authority figure. It is often motivated by a desire to avoid punishment or to respect the authority.

Conformity: Conformity involves changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of others, typically due to social pressure or the desire to fit in. It is driven by the need for social acceptance or fear of rejection.

Why People Obey: People tend to obey authority figures because they feel the authority has legitimacy, fear punishment, or believe the authority knows better.

Why People Conform: People conform to avoid social conflict, gain approval, or because they believe the group is better informed than they are.

Foot in the Door vs. Door in the Face Techniques

Foot in the Door: This technique involves making a small request first, which is likely to be accepted, followed by a larger request. The idea is that agreeing to the small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to the larger one.

Door in the Face: This technique involves making a large, unreasonable request first, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. The smaller request seems more acceptable in comparison, increasing the likelihood of agreement.

4. Persuasion

Persuasion

Definition: Persuasion is the process of attempting to change someone's beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through communication. This can be done through logical arguments, emotional appeals, or credibility of the speaker.

Persuadability

Definition: Persuadability refers to how likely someone is to be influenced by persuasive messages. It varies based on individual differences, the strength of the message, and the credibility of the source.

Sleeper Effect

Definition: The sleeper effect refers to a phenomenon where people may initially reject a persuasive message but, over time, they may come to accept it, especially if they forget the source of the message. This effect occurs because the content of the message is remembered while the source (which may have been dismissed) fades from memory.