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• nature of the kosnos, a narrative account of reality • Philosophy offers a systematic and logical perspective of nature Evidence for Early Greek Philosophy • No work survives complete, referenced in fragments of later writhers • The doxographic tradition (writing in prose not poetry) ◦ Aristotles metaphysics, important work The Milesians • Birthplace of western philosophy, active in 6 BC • First to abandon mythical-religious explanations ◦ physical understanding of world • Known as physical (physikoi) or natural philosophy • Arche (first principle): all physical matter → one substance Thales • First greek philosopher, a great figure seen as a scientist/ intellect • Semi-mythical stories, cultural model), for storytelling of sage figures • Water = arche (origin of matter) Anaximander & Anaximenes • Time Period: Active until ~500 BC • Anaximander: Infinite, unlimited = arche • Anaximenes: Air = arche (primary substance) Heraclitus • Main Idea: Fire is the arche and symbolizes constant change • Logos: universal reason or principle governing change • Quote: “You cannot step into the same river twice” Parmenides • Focused on "being" and rejected the reality of change, motion, or plurality • Wrote in poetry , introduced logical reasoning into philosophical debates Empedocles • Introduced the "Four Roots" as fundamental elements: Fire (Zeus), Air (Hera), Earth (Aidoneus), and Water (Nestis) • Proposed Love (Philotes) and Strife (Neikos) as cosmic forces driving unity and separation ◦ Cycle of Change: The elements cycle between unity and separation under Love and Strife • Suggested reincarnation and cosmic punishment for moral failings • Philosophical poetry → On Nature and Purifications <aside> 💡 • Sophists: wisdom & skill, rhetoric & speaking (art form) to empower them </aside> Socrates • Influential philosopher, socratic literature was a genre in itself • Socratic method: asking ppl (who claimed knowing) questions to test their understanding Plato • Background: ◦ Student of Socrates and founded the Academy ▪ He rejected marriage ▪ Produced many philosophical works ◦ Combined philosophy with mathematics and ethics • Key Ideas: ◦ Theory of Forms: Abstract, perfect templates for all objects and concepts ◦ Justice, ethics, and the ideal state discussed in The Republic • Dialogues: Wrote in dialogue form, featuring Socrates as a key figure in early works, were aporetic (had an open ending) • Philosophical Evolution: ◦ Early: Focus on Socratic inquiry, open endings (Apology) ◦ Middle: Developed positive conclusions (Republic, Phaedo) ◦ Late: Advanced his own ideas (Timaeus, Laws) Aristotle • Background: ◦ Student of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great ◦ Founded the Lyceum and emphasized empirical observation • Key Contributions: ◦ Logic and Syllogism: Foundation for scientific reasoning ◦ Teleology: Explanation of phenomena by purpose rather than cause ◦ Natural Sciences: Classified animals and studied biology extensively ◦ Ethics: Advocated for the "Golden Mean" in moral behavior (Nicomachean Ethics) • Writings: Divided into logic, metaphysics, natural sciences, and ethics/politics/ art ◦ Esoteric works were using in his school ◦ Exoteric works written for those outside his school, more accessible and helpful Reading Notes Greek philosophy (I): the Pre-Socratics P 97-99 Greek Philosophy II): Socrates and Plato 286-290 Greek Philosophy (III): Aristotle 290-295 Key Term Definitions: 1 Academy: Plato’s school in Athens, a center for philosophical study 2 Lyceum: Aristotle’s school in Athens, focused on research and observation 3 Republic: Plato’s philosophical work outlining his vision of an ideal state governed by philosopher-kings 4 Aristotle: Greek philosopher who emphasized observation, logic, and natural hierarchies 5 Mausoleum: A large, impressive tomb named after Mausolus of Halicarnassus 6 Sacred Band: An elite Theban military unit composed of 150 pairs of male lovers 7 Artaxerxes: Persian king during the 4th century BC 8 Neaera: An Athenian courtesan involved in a famous legal case highlighting issues of citizenship and women's roles 9 Corinthian War: A conflict between Sparta and a coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Persia (395-387 BC) 10 Pelopidas: Theban general instrumental in defeating Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra 11 Second Athenian League: A naval alliance formed by Athens in 378 BC to counter Spartan dominance 12 Socrates: Philosopher known for the Socratic method of questioning and critical thinking 13 Dicasteries: Athenian courts composed of large juries chosen by lot 14 Peltast: Lightly armed Greek infantryman known for using javelins 15 Theory of Forms: Plato’s idea that non-material abstract forms represent the highest reality 16 Epaminondas: Theban general who broke Spartan dominance at the Battle of Leuctra 17 Plato: Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, and author of the Republic 18 Thirty Tyrants: An oligarchic regime that ruled Athens briefly after the Peloponnesian War
 Short Summary of Key Concepts: • Symposiastic Poetry: Theognis of Megara’s poetry reflects aristocratic resentment toward the rising power of non-noble citizens • Presocratic Philosophy: Early Greek philosophers from Miletus focused on physical causes of the universe, rejecting mythological explanations • Milesian Philosophers: Thales believed all matter originated from water; Anaximander from "The Boundless"; Anaximenes from air • Pythagoras: Introduced mathematical order to the universe, believed in transmigration of the soul • Xenophanes: Criticized traditional religion, suggested humans created gods in their own image • Plato’s Philosophy: Advocated for philosopher-kings, communal living for guardians, and criticized democracy as flawed • Aristotle’s Philosophy: Emphasized observation, natural hierarchies, and the polis as essential for human development • Military Innovations: Dionysius I advanced siege warfare with devices like the gastraphetes (bellyshooter) • Greek Political Landscape: Intellectual advancements continued but the independence of Greek city-states (poleis) faced threats, particularly from Macedon Early Greek Medicine • Healing was a mix of observation, philosophy, and religion • Physicians made battlefield observations • Disease from divine causes or imbalance within the body Asclepius • Healing god worshiped when got sick Hippocrates (5th Century BCE) • Contemporary of Socrates, regarded as the ideal physician • Plato: "One cannot understand the body without understanding the whole world" • Hippocratic oath, do not harm The Hippocratic Corpus • Collection of medical texts, written by practitioners of medicine who followed hippocratic tradition • Emphasis on balance and morbid imbalance as causes of disease Ethical foundations led to the Hippocratic Oath Galen (129–ca. 190 CE) • Rose from gladiator-physician to court physician of roman emperor Marcus • Influenced by Plato and Aristotle but developed independent medical theories • Emphasized four-humour theory (chymoi, L. (h)umores): ◦ Yellow bile (chole) ◦ Black bile ◦ Phlegm ◦ Blood • Three-organ system: ◦ Heart – seat of vital spirits ◦ Brain – center of rational thought ◦ Liver – responsible for digestion and blood production • Major contributions in anatomy and pathology Greek Ideas of Anatomy and Physiology • Knowledge of the body: ◦ Relied on extispicy (examination of animal entrails) for anatomical insights ◦ Physicians gained some knowledge from battlefield wounds ◦ Dissection was prohibited, considered an act of desecration • Advancements in Egypt (Hellenistic Period): ◦ After Alexander’s conquests, Greek physicians in Alexandria began formal anatomical studies Herophilus of Chalcedon (ca. 330–260 BCE) • Active in Alexandria • Conducted vivisections on convicted criminals • Important for studies on the brain and nervous system • First to differentiate between veins and arteries Erasistratus (ca. 315–240 BCE) • Also active in Alexandria • Developed principles of anatomy and physiology • Studied the circulatory and nervous systems Unusual Medical Theories • Wandering womb: Believed to cause illnesses in women (hysteria from Greek hystera, "womb") • Brain theory: Brain (enkephalos, myelos) thought to be related to semen production Mind and Body: Theories of Consciousness • Where is the mind located? ◦ Some Greeks linked it to the brain ◦ Others associated it with the heart, liver, or diaphragm • Greek myths about the body and mind: ◦ Prometheus' immortal liver: ▪ His punishment (having his liver devoured daily) reflects beliefs that the liver was the seat of emotions ▪ Later associated with sexual passion, similar to modern heart symbolism ◦ Why the liver? ▪ Myth of Tityos (punished for assaulting Leto) also involves liver injury ▪ Ancient belief: deep emotions and desires were stored in the liver ▪ Raises questions about modern distinctions between body and mind The Great Plague of Athens (430 BCE) • Described by Thucydides, who had the disease himself • Symptoms: ◦ Sudden fever, intense headaches ◦ Redness and inflammation of the eyes ◦ Throat and tongue affected, emitting foul breath ◦ Hard cough, stomach distress, bile vomiting ◦ Skin ulcers, extreme thirst, inability to rest or sleep ◦ If not fatal early, could cause memory loss, gangrene, blindness • Possible causes: Typhus, smallpox, measles, or an extinct disease Greek Attitudes Toward Disease • External force acting upon a person • Could be divine punishment • Healing often linked to religion • Thucydides' observations: ◦ Recognized immunity: survivors did not catch the plague again ◦ Identified patterns of contagion, though no formal theory of germs existed ◦ Physicians suffered higher mortality rates due to exposure ◦ Fear led to abandonment of the sick ◦ Breakdown of traditional medicine and social order ◦ Theories of contagion and acquired immunity were not formally developed until Girolamo Fracastoro (1546) Did Thucydides Understand Contagion? • Noted that those who recovered tended to the sick without fear • Some phrases suggest awareness of person-to-person transmission • However, ancient physicians did not develop a formal contagion theory • The true germ theory of disease only emerged in the 19th century Conclusion: Why Did Ancient Physicians Not Recognize Contagion? • No understanding of microorganisms • Focused on humoral imbalance, not external pathogens • Religious and philosophical views framed disease as divine punishment • Theories of divine causation, humoral imbalance, and external forces delayed the recognition of infection-based diseases Greek Athletics Training of the Body • Training of the body was crucial to Greek (and Roman) education • Mousikē kai gymnastikē (lit. ‘music and athletics’) • In Rome: mens sana in corpore sano ("a healthy mind in a healthy body") • Culture of competition was central • The games were agōnes (‘competitions’) • Athletics were about the hard physical struggle to gain victory over an opponent • Important connection with military training Origins of Sport • Two prominent theories on the origins of sport: 1 Sport derives from primitive hunting rituals ▪ A form of sacrifice ▪ Ritual sacrifice of physical energy ▪ Rooted in a violent form of food-collecting 2 The games originated in death rituals ▪ Athletic competitions closely linked to funerary practices ▪ Athletic games often held as part of funeral rites The Games • Earliest description of athletic competition appears in Homer's Iliad (Book 23) ◦ Funeral games for Patroclus ◦ Events included: ▪ Chariot-racing ▪ Boxing ▪ Wrestling ▪ Running ▪ Javelin ▪ ‘Fencing’ ▪ Throwing the weight ▪ Archery Four Major Panhellenic Competitions 1 Olympic Games (held at Olympia) – honored Zeus ◦ The most prestigious of the Panhellenic games ◦ Women competed in separate games at Olympia: ▪ The Heraea (honoring Hera, Zeus’ wife) 2 Pythian Games (held at Delphi) – honored Apollo 3 Nemean Games (held at Nemea, NW Argolid) – honored Zeus 4 Isthmian Games (held at Isthmia, near Corinth) – honored Poseidon Athletic Events Running Races • Stadion (one-length race, 192 meters at Olympia) • Diaulos (double-length race, there and back) • Dolichos (long-distance race, 12 laps at Olympia) • Race in armor (military connection) Pentathlon (Five Events) • Long jump • Stadion (running race) • Discus throw • Javelin throw • Wrestling Pankration • Combination of boxing and wrestling • Brutal and violent – only eye gouging was illegal Sociology of Sport • Athletics were part of everyday life, but competition was tied to elite society • Chariot racing was a prestigious event • Horses symbolized elite status ◦ Names often contained "Hipp-" or "-ipp-" (Greek for "horse") • Victory was commemorated in: ◦ Monuments ◦ Poetry (notably by Pindar and Bacchylides) Key Locations • Olympia (Olympic Games, Zeus) • Delphi (Pythian Games, Apollo) History of the Fourth Century BC Post-Peloponnesian War Crisis • The period following the Peloponnesian War was one of transition and crisis • Many of the central Greek poleis were in precarious positions • War had undermined commerce by land and sea • The war and plague at Athens had dramatically reduced the population of citizen males • Some cities were completely destroyed • Greece was weakened and vulnerable Macedon • The connecting link between the Balkans and the Greek peninsula • Inconsequential in the 5th century, although there were signs of cultural interest in the Macedonian court • Euripides died while visiting King Archelaus Philip II (382-336 BC) • The architect of Macedonian greatness • A brilliant general • Expanded Macedonian control and influence • Defeat of Thebes in 338 BC made Macedon the master of the Greek world Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) • Alexander III, known as Alexander ‘the Great’ • Expanded Macedonian control to the East by subjugating the former Persian Empire • Also conquered Egypt and most of India • Became the monarch of most of the known world • Much romanticized by later tradition The Diadochoi (Successors of Alexander) • The officers who partitioned Alexander’s empire • Antigonus (Persia, Phrygia, etc.) • Antipater • Cassander • Lysimachus (Thrace) • Ptolemy (Egypt) • Seleucus (Babylon) Reading Notes Summary of Alexander the Great’s Campaigns and Achievements Early Life and Rise to Power • Alexander III of Macedon (Alexander the Great) was born in 356 BC, son of Philip II and Olympias • Tutored by Aristotle, gaining a love for Homer and identifying with Achilles and Heracles • Commanded the Companion Cavalry at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), securing Greek submission under Macedon • Succeeded Philip II after his assassination in 336 BC, quickly consolidating power and eliminating rivals Early Campaigns and Greek Rebellions • Confirmed as hegemon of the Corinthian League, securing Greek support for war against Persia • Crushed rebellions in Thrace and Illyria, proving his military prowess • Thebes revolted in his absence but was destroyed in 335 BC, sending a message to Greece about Macedonian supremacy Invasion of Persia (334 BC) • Crossed into Asia with 37,000 troops, including Macedonian phalanx, hypaspists, Companion Cavalry, and Greek allies • Claimed Asia by throwing a spear into the land upon arrival • Defeated Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granicus, nearly dying before being saved by Cleitus the Black • Punished Greek mercenaries serving Persia, sending survivors back to Macedonia in chains Major Battles Against the Persian Empire • Battle of Issus (333 BC): Alexander faced Darius III, who fled, leaving his family behind • Siege of Tyre (332 BC): Brutal eight-month siege; city was destroyed, survivors enslaved • Conquest of Egypt (332-331 BC): Welcomed as a liberator; consulted the oracle of Zeus-Ammon at Siwah, reinforcing belief in his divine ancestry • Founded Alexandria, which became a major cultural and economic center Final Defeat of Darius III and Conquest of Persia • Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC): Alexander decisively defeated Darius, who fled and was later assassinated by Bessus • Captured Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, burning Persepolis as revenge for Persian destruction of Athens in 480 BC • Declared himself "King of Asia", adopting Persian dress and customs to gain support from Persian elites • Executed Bessus, presenting himself as the legitimate ruler of the Achaemenid Empire Campaigns in Central Asia (330-327 BC) • Struggled to control Bactria and Sogdiana, facing stiff resistance • Married Roxane, a Sogdian noblewoman, to integrate into local politics • Faced dissent from Macedonian officers over his adoption of proskynesis (Persian court ritual) • Executed Philotas and Parmenion, accused of plotting against him • Killed Cleitus the Black in a drunken rage, causing unease among his men Invasion of India (327-325 BC) • Crossed the Hindu Kush and defeated King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BC) • Impressed by Porus, he reinstated him as ruler, expanding his territory • Soldiers, exhausted from years of campaigning, mutinied at the River Hyphasis, refusing to continue east • Alexander agreed to return but continued subjugating rebellious Indian territories Return to Persia and Final Years (325-323 BC) • Faced extreme hardship crossing the Gedrosian Desert, losing thousands of men • Executed corrupt satraps upon his return to Persia • Attempted to integrate Macedonians and Persians, holding mass weddings at Susa (324 BC) • Faced mutiny at Opis, as Macedonian veterans resented Persian recruits replacing them • His closest companion, Hephaestion, died in 324 BC, causing deep mourning • Died in Babylon (323 BC) at age 32, likely from fever (possibly malaria or poisoning) Key Term Definitions 1 Alexander the Great – Macedonian king who created one of the largest empires in history, from Greece to India 2 Alexandria – City in Egypt founded by Alexander, becoming a major center of Hellenistic culture 3 Antipater – Macedonian general and regent of Macedonia while Alexander campaigned in Asia 4 Battle of Gaugamela – Decisive battle in 331 BC where Alexander defeated Darius III and claimed the Persian Empire 5 Battle of the Granicus – First major battle of Alexander’s Persian campaign (334 BC), nearly costing him his life 6 Battle of the Hydaspes – Alexander’s battle against King Porus (326 BC) in India, where he incorporated Porus into his empire 7 Battle of Issus – Alexander’s victory against Darius III (333 BC), leading to the capture of the Persian royal family 8 Bessus – Persian satrap who assassinated Darius III but was later captured and executed by Alexander 9 Callisthenes – Alexander’s official historian who opposed proskynesis, later executed for alleged conspiracy 10 Darius III – Last Persian king, defeated by Alexander, fled twice, and was ultimately killed by his own men 11 Gordian Knot – A legendary knot Alexander cut with his sword, symbolizing his bold approach to problem-solving 12 Great King – Title of the Persian ruler, referring to the vast Achaemenid Empire 13 Parmenion – Senior Macedonian general and trusted advisor of Alexander, executed after his son’s alleged conspiracy 14 Persepolis – Persian capital burned by Alexander in revenge for Persia’s destruction of Athens in 480 BC 15 Philotas – Son of Parmenion, executed for failing to report a conspiracy against Alexander 16 Proskynesis – Persian practice of bowing before the king, which Alexander adopted, angering his Macedonian troops 17 Roxane – Sogdian noblewoman and wife of Alexander, mother of his posthumous son, Alexander IV 18 Zeus-Ammon – Egyptian-Greek deity whose oracle declared Alexander the son of Zeus, reinforcing his divine status Hellenistic Literature and Culture Alexandrian Poetry • Flourished under the cultural patronage of the Ptolemies • Supported by the Library of Alexandria and the Museum (Mouseion) Library of Alexandria • Founded by Ptolemy I in the early 3rd century BC • Ambitious collection of all Greek literature • Catalogued by Callimachus • Museum (Mouseion): ◦ A home for scholar-poets ◦ Famous for its intellectual culture Literary Culture in Alexandria • Greek literature in crisis • Critical hostility to Alexandrian poetry: ◦ Tendency to see Hellenistic literature as a transition from Classical Greece to Augustan Rome ◦ Distaste for poetry that appears to be a product of royal patronage ◦ Lack of appreciation for its self-conscious ‘intertextuality’ ◦ Preference for Aristotelian unity and consistency, which Alexandrian works often lack Alexandrian Poetry • Use of obscure mythical subjects • Interest in unusual language (rare words, complex diction) • Preoccupied with other texts (intertextuality) • Emphasis on learning and scholarship Why Did Alexandrian Poetry Develop This Way? • Shift from orality to literacy in Greek culture • More written than performed, encouraging textual complexity The Alexandrian Manner • Highly sophisticated and learned • Poetry as an intellectual exercise Major Alexandrian Poets Callimachus (fl. ca. 260 BC) • Credited with 800 books • Major works: ◦ Aetia (mythological and historical origins of customs and cities) ◦ Hecale (short heroic epic) ◦ Hymns (inspired by Homeric hymns) ◦ Epigrams (short, refined poems) Apollonius of Rhodes (fl. 3rd century BC) • Author of the Argonautica (4 books) • The story of Jason’s quest for the Golden Fleece Theocritus (fl. early 3rd century BC, from Syracuse) • Idylls (pastoral poetry) • A model for Vergil’s Eclogues, marking the beginning of the European pastoral tradition Text Notes Summary of the Hellenistic Period 1. Impact of Alexander’s Conquests • Alexander’s empire stretched from the Mediterranean to India, creating a vast cosmopolis (world-city). • Greek became the common language of government and culture. • New cities established as centers of Greek culture in non-Greek regions. • The Hellenistic Period (323–30 BC) began after Alexander’s death and ended with Cleopatra VII. 2. Struggle for Succession • Alexander died in 323 BC without a clear heir. • His half-brother Arrhidaeus (Philip III) and infant son Alexander IV were named joint kings. • Perdiccas, Alexander’s chief minister, took control but faced opposition from the Macedonian infantry. • The empire fragmented as his generals (Diadochi) fought for control. 3. Wars of the Successors (Diadochi Wars, 322–280 BC) • Key generals divided the empire: ◦ Ptolemy I took Egypt. ◦ Seleucus took Babylon and much of Asia. ◦ Antigonus the One-Eyed controlled Asia Minor but was later defeated. ◦ Lysimachus ruled Thrace and Anatolia. ◦ Cassander took control of Macedonia and executed Alexander IV and Roxane. • By 280 BC, three major Macedonian dynasties had formed: ◦ Ptolemaic Egypt ◦ Seleucid Empire (Asia) ◦ Antigonid Macedonia 4. Governance & Society in Hellenistic Kingdoms • Monarchies replaced city-state rule; kings acted as absolute rulers. • Kings controlled vast territories and relied on Greek and Macedonian administrators. • Local traditions in Egypt and Persia were tolerated but influenced by Greek culture. • The Ptolemies in Egypt developed an extensive bureaucracy and monopolized industries (e.g., papyrus, textiles). • Hellenistic rulers used religion to legitimize power (e.g., Ptolemies introduced the cult of Sarapis). 5. The Role of the Polis • Despite monarchies, the polis remained central in Greek life. • New federal leagues emerged: ◦ Achaean League in the Peloponnesus. ◦ Aetolian League in central Greece. • Athens remained a cultural center but lost political independence. 6. Greek Culture in the Hellenistic World • Hellenistic art focused on individual emotions, realism, and daily life (e.g., Laocoön and the Boxer). • Philosophy addressed uncertainty and personal ethics: ◦ Stoicism (Zeno): Accept fate, live in harmony with nature. ◦ Epicureanism (Epicurus): Seek pleasure, avoid pain. ◦ Skepticism: Doubt the possibility of certain knowledge. ◦ Cynicism: Reject materialism, live simply. • Hellenistic Alexandria became the intellectual hub: ◦ The Library of Alexandria aimed to collect all Greek knowledge. ◦ The Museum was a research center for scholars. ◦ Eratosthenes estimated the Earth's circumference. ◦ The Antikythera Mechanism was an early astronomical calculator. 7. The Rise of Rome and the Fall of the Hellenistic Kingdoms • The Seleucid Empire struggled with internal conflicts and external invasions. • The Ptolemies controlled Egypt but faced revolts and succession crises. • Macedon fell to Rome after the Third Macedonian War (168 BC). • Rome defeated the Achaean League (146 BC), destroying Corinth. • Mithridates VI of Pontus led resistance against Rome but was ultimately defeated. • The last Hellenistic kingdom, Ptolemaic Egypt, fell after Cleopatra VII’s defeat at Actium (31 BC). Key Term Definitions 1 Achaean League – A federal alliance of Greek city-states in the Peloponnesus. 2 Aetolian League – A Greek federation in central Greece, opposing Macedonian influence. 3 Alexander IV – Son of Alexander the Great, killed by Cassander. 4 Antigonus the One-Eyed – General of Alexander, controlled Asia before being defeated. 5 Antikythera Mechanism – Ancient Greek mechanical device for astronomical calculations. 6 Apollonius of Rhodes – Hellenistic poet who wrote the Argonautica. 7 Berenice II – Queen of Egypt, associated with Hellenistic poetry and victories in the Olympic Games. 8 Callimachus – Poet and scholar of the Library of Alexandria. 9 Cleopatra VII – The last Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt, defeated by Rome. 10 Cynicism – Philosophy promoting rejection of materialism and simple living. 11 Demetrius Poliorcetes – Son of Antigonus, known for siege warfare. 12 Eratosthenes – Greek scientist who calculated the Earth's circumference. 13 Epicureanism – Philosophy advocating the pursuit of pleasure and avoiding pain. 14 Euhemerus – Philosopher who argued that gods were originally great rulers. 15 Greek freedom – The idea that Greek city-states should be independent from monarchies. 16 Hellenistic Period – The era following Alexander’s death (323–30 BC), marked by Greek influence across Asia. 17 Isis – Egyptian goddess who became widely worshiped in the Hellenistic world. 18 Library of Alexandria – A major center of learning and Greek scholarship. 19 Lysimachus – One of Alexander’s generals, ruled Thrace and Anatolia. 20 Menander – Hellenistic playwright of New Comedy. 21 Museum of Alexandria – A research institution linked to the Library of Alexandria. 22 Neopythagoreanism – A revival of Pythagorean religious and philosophical ideas. 23 Perdiccas – Alexander’s chief minister, assassinated during the Wars of the Successors. 24 Pharos – The lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. 25 Ptolemy I – General of Alexander, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. 26 Ptolemy II – Expanded Ptolemaic power and promoted the Library of Alexandria. 27 Sarapis – A Greco-Egyptian deity created to unify Greek and Egyptian religious traditions. 28 Seleucus – Founder of the Seleucid Empire, controlling much of Asia. 29 Skepticism – Philosophy questioning whether absolute knowledge is possible. 30 Stoicism – A philosophy teaching rationalism and emotional self-control. 31 Tyche – The goddess of fortune, reflecting the uncertainty of the Hellenistic world. 32 Zeno – Founder of Stoicism, taught in Athens. Study Notes: Early Rome and the Etruscans Early Rome • Two main sources of evidence: ◦ Archaeology ◦ Later ancient historians (mainly from the Republican period) ▪ Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Books from the Foundation of the City) by Livy (Titus Livius) • Traditional foundation date of Rome: 753 BCE Archaeological Evidence • Many place-names in Italy are non-Indo-European • Italic-speaking peoples (including Latin) likely arrived from the Balkans or Central Europe (date uncertain) • Rome is in Latium, so scholars refer to Latial phases Latial Phases (1000-580 BCE) Phase Dates BCE Cultural Definition Historical Definition I 1000-875 Final Bronze Age Pre-urban IIA 875-800 Early Iron Age Pre-urban IIB 800-750 Early Iron Age Proto-urban III 750-700 Early Iron Age Proto-urban IV 700-580 Orientalizing Urban Latial I (1000-875 BCE) • Little archaeological evidence • A few burial urns but no habitation sites Latial II (875-750 BCE) • Two distinct population groups (suggested by archaeology) • Excavations at Gabii reveal: ◦ Low economic development (subsistence economy) ◦ Population around 100 ◦ No social stratification (two extended families) Latial III (750-700 BCE) • Larger settlements emerge • Economic advancement (olive and wine production, pottery) • Domestic pottery shows Greek influence • Tombs show clear wealth distinctions Latial IV (700-580 BCE) – ‘Orientalizing’ Period • Increased wealth, visible in: ◦ Burials ◦ Buildings • Tombs show signs of: ◦ Disposable wealth ◦ Celebration of military prowess • Rise of a wealthy landowning class? • Tribal society with ‘chieftains’ leading gentes (clan groups)? • Development of centralized authority? Literary Tradition: The Mythical Foundation of Rome • Linked to Trojan hero Aeneas, to connect Rome with Greek tradition and chronology • The Romulus and Remus story: ◦ Numitor, king of Alba Longa, was overthrown by Amulius ◦ Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, was forced to become a Vestal Virgin ◦ She was raped by Mars and bore twin sons, Romulus and Remus ◦ Amulius imprisoned Rhea Silvia and ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber Rescue and Founding of Rome • The twins washed ashore, suckled by a she-wolf, and were found by Faustulus, the royal herdsman • Raised by Faustulus and Acca Larentia, they became leaders of bands of young men • Remus was captured, and Romulus rescued him; their royal identity was revealed • The twins killed Amulius and restored Numitor to the throne • They founded a city on the site of Rome • Romulus walled the city, and Remus was killed (either by Romulus or Celer) for leaping over the walls • Romulus offered asylum to fugitives and stole Sabine women for wives • Romulus disappeared mysteriously in a storm at Goat’s Marsh and was later worshipped as the god Quirinus Interpretations of the Myth • Romulus = ‘Roman’; Remus also derived from Roma? • Myth linked to other Indo-European twin stories (Dioscuri, Zethus & Calais, Vedic Ashvins) • Known by at least the 3rd century BCE, possibly older • Political meaning: a foundation myth tied to the realities of Republican Rome • ‘Death’ of Romulus: two versions exist: ◦ Sudden disappearance ◦ Murder and dismemberment ◦ Assimilation with Quirinus (Romans were called Quirites) The Early Kingdom • Evidence suggests an early regal period • Republican-era remnants: ◦ Rex Sacrorum (‘King of Sacrifices’) ◦ Regia (religious building in the Forum) ◦ An archaic inscription mentioning a rex • Names of early kings are unusual, possibly authentic • Was Rome originally ruled by a religious elite? • Possible oligarchic rule by aristocrats? The Seven Kings of Rome 1 Romulus 2 Numa Pompilius 3 Tullius Hostilius 4 Ancus Marcius 5 Tarquinius Priscus 6 Servius Tullius 7 Tarquinius Superbus • Apart from Romulus, these may be real kings, but their historical succession is debated • Some accounts, like Tullius Hostilius’ conquest of Alba Longa, may reflect historical events The Etruscans • Most important pre-Roman indigenous people of Italy • Called Tyrsenoi, Tyrrheni, Etrusci • Roman sources claim they once dominated nearly all of Italy • Recent research views the Etruscans as a highly developed civilization, not just precursors to Greece and Rome Etruscan Language • Once thought mysterious, but now better understood • 9,000 inscriptions, including: ◦ Liber Linteus (linen book) ◦ 40-50 glosses • Etruscan loan words in Latin and vice versa • Etruscan alphabet derived from Greek • Latin alphabet was adopted from Etruscan Origins of the Etruscans • Two ancient accounts: ◦ Arrived from the East (Herodotus) ◦ Indigenous to Italy (Dionysius of Halicarnassus) • Archaeology suggests they developed in Italy from an Iron Age culture Etruscan Civilization • 8th-7th century BCE: A distinct artistic and cultural tradition emerges • Artistic achievements: ◦ Painted pottery ◦ Bucchero pottery (distinctive black ceramics) ◦ Bronze work ◦ Jewelry Etruscan Society • Shift from regal rule to a system resembling Greek poleis • A wealthy class of merchants and landowners emerged • Extensive trade with Greece • Strong influence on early Rome (Tarquins were likely of Etruscan origin) Greek and Roman Views on the Etruscans • Often negative in Greek and Latin sources • Accused of piracy (possibly commercial rivalry) • Social customs shocked Greeks and Romans: ◦ Greater status for women ◦ Women dined and attended public events with men ◦ Funerary inscriptions used both patronymics and matronymics • Greek hostility due to military and economic competition Conclusion • Rome’s early history is a mix of archaeology, myth, and later historical tradition • The Etruscans played a key role in shaping early Roman institutions • Archaeological evidence helps clarify what is myth and what is historical reality Roman Republic From Monarchy to Republic • The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus ◦ Portrayed as a tyrannical populist ◦ Expelled near the end of the 6th century BCE • The monarchy was replaced by an elected republican system • Some argue that the transition was gradual ◦ The rex (king) became less important and eventually ceremonial (rex sacrorum) Chronology and Sources • Many ancient sources ◦ Mostly from the late Republic and Principate ◦ Both Greek and Roman accounts • Roman fasti (= ‘calendar’) ◦ Lists of magistrates, used to track political history Basic Principles of the Republic The Pomerium • Sacred boundary of the city • Within the pomerium: domus (home) • Outside the pomerium: militia (military service zone) • This distinction shaped Roman views of the world Key Political Terms • Imperium = "command" (supreme authority, especially in military matters) • Gentes = family or clan groups • Populus = "people" (originally meaning "army") • Res publica populi Romani = "communal affairs of the Roman people" Basic Elements of Republican Government Collegiality • Magistrates were part of boards called "colleges" • Ensured shared power and accountability Popular Election • Roman magistrates were always elected by the Roman People • Elections took place in various assemblies Annual Term for Office • One-year limit for magistrates • Problematic for long-term military campaigns Prohibition of Direct Election from One Office to Another • Officials could not immediately be re-elected to a higher office Consuls • Chief civil and military magistrates of the Republic • Two consuls were elected annually by the centuriate assembly • Held imperium, the same power once held by kings • The consuls were at the top of a complex hierarchy of officials The Struggle of the Orders Patricians • Elite families connected with the rank of pater (‘father’) • Small aristocratic group from which magistrates were traditionally chosen Plebeians (Plebs) • Non-patrician members of the populus Romanus • Often referred to as "the mob" or "the throng" • Struggle between patricians and plebeians was a central issue of the Republic Roman Expansion & Punic Wars Roman Conquest of Italy • Began in the late 5th century BCE. • Conquered and colonized various Italian tribes. • Latin became dominant, but other languages persisted: ◦ Oscan-Umbrian, Greek, Etruscan, Gallic. Roman Imperialism • Modern term used to describe Rome’s expansion from the 3rd century BCE to 1st century AD. • Rooted in military strength and alliances. • Imperium = military power; aspiring magistrates needed 10 years of service. • The triumph (triumphus) had religious and political significance. • Rome secured conquered regions by establishing provinces (prouinciae). • Theories on Roman expansion: ◦ Defensive in origin but turned expansionist. ◦ Economic motives and territorial ambition. Carthage and the Punic Wars • Carthage: Phoenician colony in NE Tunisia. • Powerful naval trading empire. • Clashed with Greek cities in Sicily. • Rome and Carthage were allies until 264 BCE. • The conflict over Sicily triggered the Punic Wars. First Punic War (264–241 BCE) • Rome had no navy at the start; Carthage was a major sea power. • Rome invented the corvus (boarding bridge) to turn sea battles into land battles. • Rome won, taking Sicily and Sardinia. • Carthage paid a huge fine and focused on Spain. • War demonstrated Rome’s: ◦ Determination – relentless despite heavy losses. ◦ Adaptability – rapid naval improvements. ◦ Manpower – Rome had deeper reserves than Carthage. Regulus and Roman Honor • M. Atilius Regulus was captured (255 BCE). • Sent to negotiate a prisoner exchange in 250 BCE. • Argued against the exchange, saying Rome could afford losses. • Returned to Carthage (keeping his word) and was tortured to death. • Symbolized Roman values: honor, sacrifice, strategic thinking. Second Punic War (218–201 BCE) • Caused by Carthaginian expansion in Spain. • Hannibal invaded Italy in 218 BCE: ◦ 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, 37 elephants. ◦ Used brilliant military tactics to destabilize Rome. • Fabius Maximus responded with "Fabian tactics" (delaying, avoiding direct battle). • Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal at Zama (202 BCE). • Carthage lost due to: ◦ Rome’s superior manpower. ◦ Lack of reinforcements from Spain. ◦ Failure to regain naval dominance. ◦ Roman confederation remained intact. Third Punic War (149–146 BCE) • Carthage provoked war. • Rome sent an army to Africa, sacked Carthage. • Population enslaved, city destroyed. Effects of Roman Conquests • Political changes: ◦ Military leaders elected repeatedly, breaking Roman laws. ◦ Normal career progression was ignored. ◦ Scipio Aemilianus gained power beyond legal limits. • Economic consequences: ◦ Massive increase in wealth from war and empire. ◦ Equestrian class grew (wealthy landowners). ◦ Land was the main investment; trade was considered beneath Roman dignity. • Growth of large estates (latifundia): ◦ Wealthy Romans bought out small farmers. ◦ Slaves from conquest worked these estates. ◦ Example: L. Aemilius Paullus enslaved 150,000 people in one day. • Impact on small farmers: ◦ Lost land to wealthy elites. ◦ Many migrated to Rome, leading to urban overcrowding. ◦ Fewer eligible soldiers, as only property owners could serve. • Rise of senatorial arrogance: ◦ Romans bullied foreign rulers (e.g., Antiochus IV of Syria). ◦ Italian allies resented exclusion from power. Key Terms & Definitions • Carthage – Powerful Phoenician trading empire in North Africa. • Imperium – Roman military authority. • Provinces (prouinciae) – Permanent Roman territories outside Italy. • Triumph (triumphus) – Public parade celebrating a victorious general. • Punic – Roman term for Carthaginians (Poeni in Latin). • Corvus – Boarding bridge that turned sea battles into land battles. • Regulus – Roman commander who sacrificed himself for Rome. • Hannibal – Brilliant Carthaginian general, led Second Punic War. • Fabian Tactics – Delaying strategy to exhaust the enemy. • Scipio Africanus – Roman general who defeated Hannibal at Zama. • Latifundia – Large slave plantations owned by wealthy Romans. • Equestrian class – Wealthy landowning business elite. • Scipio Aemilianus – Roman commander who destroyed Carthage. • Antiochus IV – Hellenistic king humiliated by Rome. The First Century BCE – Collapse of the Roman Republic Problems from Roman Expansion • Conquest of the Mediterranean caused political and social unrest • Key issues ◦ Land reform – small farmers struggled to compete with large estates ◦ Italian allies wanted Roman citizenship • Oligarchic Senate resisted reform, leading to division and political turmoil The Gracchi Brothers – Early Reformers • Tiberius (133 BCE) & Gaius (123-121 BCE) Gracchus – from an elite family (related to Scipio Africanus) • Tiberius' land-reform law proposed distributing public land (ager publicus) to the poor ◦ Senate opposed the reforms ◦ Ignored Senate and appealed directly to the plebs ◦ Removed a tribune (M Octavius) who vetoed the law ◦ Assassinated in 132 BCE – beginning of the "Roman Revolution" • Gaius Gracchus continued reforms but met the same fate Marius and Sulla – Civil War Begins • Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE) – a nouus homo ("new man") ◦ Elected consul multiple times ◦ Allowed landless men to join the army → led to client armies loyal to generals, not Rome • Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-79 BCE) – patrician, seized Rome by force ◦ Used his army to take power ◦ Introduced major constitutional reforms, then retired ◦ Weakened the tribunate, increased the number of praetors (10 magistrates) ◦ His dictatorship set a precedent for later military takeovers Julius Caesar – The Rise of a Dictator • Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) – ambitious patrician politician • Formed the First Triumvirate with Pompey & Crassus • Military success in Gaul (conquered much of modern France) • Famous victory in Zela (47 BCE) → “Veni, Vidi, Vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) • Relationship with Cleopatra → had a son, Ptolemy Caesar ("Caesarion") • Civil War ◦ Defeated Pompey and took control of Rome ◦ Named dictator for life ◦ Senate granted him extraordinary honors, but feared he sought kingship (rex) • Assassination (15 March 44 BCE) ◦ Killed by Brutus and other senators ◦ Last words "Kai su, teknon" ("You too, my son?") ◦ Assassins hoped to restore the Republic, but civil war resumed After Caesar – The Final Struggle • Power struggle between Mark Antony & Octavian (Caesar’s heir) • Battle of Actium (31 BCE) ◦ Antony & Cleopatra defeated ◦ Both committed suicide in Egypt (30 BCE) • Octavian now ruled the entire Mediterranean world → Became Rome’s first emperor (later Augustus) Cleopatra VII – The Last Pharaoh • Ruled Egypt (51-30 BCE) • Intelligent, multilingual, first Ptolemaic ruler to speak Egyptian • Had children with both Julius Caesar & Mark Antony • Defeated at Actium → Committed suicide by snakebite • Roman propaganda portrayed her as a dangerous foreigner ◦ Feared Egyptian wealth & influence ◦ Described as a "wicked woman" and a "monster" ◦ Horace (Odes 1 37) mocks her as a threat to Rome • Her death marked the end of the Hellenistic era and Egypt became a Roman province Key Terms & Definitions • Ager Publicus – Public land in Rome, a key issue in land reform • Nouus Homo – A "new man" who rose to power without noble ancestry (e g Marius) • Client Armies – Troops loyal to generals rather than the state • First Triumvirate – Caesar, Pompey, Crassus (political alliance) • Veni, Vidi, Vici – "I came, I saw, I conquered" – Caesar’s boastful message after victory • Flamen – High priest, Mark Antony became flamen of Caesar's cult • Actium (31 BCE) – Octavian's decisive victory over Antony & Cleopatra • Liburnians – Roman warships (referenced in Horace's poem about Cleopatra) • Fatale Monstrum – Latin phrase describing Cleopatra as a "fatal monster" • Kai su, teknon – Caesar’s real last words ("You too, my son?") Summary of Cleopatra and the Fall of the Roman Republic Collapse of the Republic • Rome’s expansion created political and social challenges • Land-reform issues and the demand for Roman citizenship by Italian allies • The senatorial oligarchy struggled to manage popular unrest The Gracchi • Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, elite brothers related to Scipio Africanus • Advocated land reform to redistribute public land (ager publicus) • Tiberius ignored Senate protocol, sought re-election, and was assassinated (132 BCE) • Gaius followed in his footsteps but also met a violent end Marius and Sulla • Gaius Marius (157–86 BCE): Nouus homo (new man), used popular support to gain power, reformed military by allowing landless men to enlist • Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138–79 BCE): Used army to take Rome, became dictator, weakened the power of tribunes, increased praetors and senatorial influence, later retired voluntarily Julius Caesar • Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE), from a patrician family claiming descent from Venus and Aeneas • Formed the First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus) • Conquered Gaul and won at Zela ("Veni, Vidi, Vici") • Had a son, Ptolemy Caesar, with Cleopatra VII • Civil War led to his dictatorship, refused the title rex but took extraordinary honors • Assassinated by a senatorial conspiracy in 44 BCE, including Brutus • His true last words: Kai su, teknon ("You too, child?") After Caesar’s Death • Republic did not return, conflict resumed • Final battle between Marc Antony and Octavian at Actium (31 BCE) • Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, leaving Octavian as the unchallenged ruler Cleopatra VII (69–30 BCE) • Ruled Egypt from 51 BCE, first alone, then with brothers • Had children with both Caesar and Antony • A skilled linguist (first Ptolemaic ruler to speak Egyptian) • Known for intelligence and charm rather than beauty (Plutarch) • Octavian’s propaganda painted her as a “wicked foreign woman” Her Death • After Actium, pursued by Octavian to Alexandria • Committed suicide in 30 BCE, likely using an asp • Roman poet Horace portrays her as proud and defiant, refusing to be a captive in a Roman triumph Key Terms • Ager publicus – Public land confiscated for redistribution • Nouus homo – "New man," a self-made politician without noble ancestry • First Triumvirate – Political alliance between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus • Veni, Vidi, Vici – "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Caesar's victory statement at Zela) • Kai su, teknon – "You too, child?" (Caesar's supposed last words) • Actium (31 BCE) – Decisive battle between Octavian and Antony/Cleopatra • Marc Antony – Caesar’s general, Cleopatra’s lover, lost at Actium • Ptolemy Caesar – Caesar and Cleopatra’s son (Caesarion) • Octavian (Augustus) – Caesar’s adopted heir, became Rome’s first emperor • Asp – Likely the snake Cleopatra used for her suicide • Horace’s Odes – Roman poetry describing Cleopatra’s defiance in death Summary of Augustus' Rule (63 BCE – 14 CE) After Actium • Octavian (later Augustus) had to establish a stable rule • Needed the support of senators, equestrians, and the army • Conquests helped legitimize his power Senatorial Reform • By 32 BCE, 700 senators swore loyalty to Octavian • Removed 190 "unworthy" senators • Granted special powers in 28 and 23 BCE • Took the title Augustus and became princeps ("first among equals") Augustus as Princeps • Princeps had republican connotations (unlike rex, "king") • Used previously for prominent republicans like Pompey • Augustus focused on influence (auctoritas) rather than official power • Later emperors made the title more autocratic (Tiberius called himself dominus, "master") Restoring the Republic? • Claimed to "restore the republic" • Kept traditional offices but maintained control over public and private policy Auctoritas and Indirect Rule** • Auctoritas meant both "ownership rights" and "influence" • Augustus promoted policy indirectly rather than imposing it directly Succession • Early on, Augustus aimed to ensure a stable transfer of power • His only child was a daughter (Julia), so he needed another heir • Chose his stepson Tiberius Claudius Nero (42 BCE – 37 CE) • This began the Julio-Claudian dynasty The Augustan Age • Augustus' true motives are debated: ◦ Benevolent leader saving Rome? ◦ Ruthless dictator securing power at all costs? • His policies created a stable and prosperous Roman state Key Terms • Actium – Battle in 31 BCE where Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra • Princeps – "First among equals," Augustus’ chosen title • Imperium – Supreme military power • Auctoritas – Influence and authority • Pater Patriae – "Father of the Country," honorary title given to Augustus • Mausoleum of Augustus – His grand tomb, built as a symbol of his legacy • Julio-Claudian Dynasty – Line of emperors starting with Augustus and continuing through Nero