AP Human Geography (Exam Study Guide)
WORK IN PROGRESS!!!
Contents and definitions of this guide are based on the textbook Human Geography: A Spatial Perspective AP Edition by National Geographic that I was provided free of charge. Most information should be in order of chapter. Use this guide to study for the AP exam.
Additional content may be provided by personal in-class instruction, and may not be included in the textbook.
Even though this guide follows the textbook, some information may be moved to more closely related sections in the guide.
Anything highlighted in blue and bold is a vocabulary word. Know it.
Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
What is Geography?
Geography is an integrative discipline that brings together the physical and human dimensions of the world in the study of people, places, and environments. Its subject matter is Earth’s surface and the processes—continuous actions taking place over time—that shape it, as well as the relationships between people and environments and the connections between people and places.
Geography is split into two major categories:
Physical geography is the study of natural processes and the distribution of features in the environment, such as landforms, plants, animals, and climate.
Example: a physical geographer might focus on the movement of glaciers in different eras, or how a process like erosion changes a riverbed.
Human geography is the study of the events and processes that have shaped how humans understand, use, and alter Earth.
Example: a human geographer studies how people organize themselves socially, politically, and economically and what impact they have on the natural environment.
Geographers often have struggle differentiating between these categories.
Geographic Perspectives, Places, Density
Both branches of geography analyze complex issues and relationships from two key perspectives, or points of view:
The spatial perspective refers to where something occurs.
When human geographers take a spatial perspective, they are studying how people live on Earth, how they organize themselves, and why the events of human societies occur where they do.
The ecological perspective, refers to the relationships between living things and their environments.
This perspective helps explain human societies’ dependence on diverse ecosystems for essential resources such as food and water.
The essential elements of geography can be summed up into three questions:
Where?
Why there?
Why care?
Certain spatial concepts can help geographers answer these questions. The concepts include location, place, space, flows, pattern, distance decay, and time-space compression.
Models
A model is a representation of reality that presents significant features or relationships in a generalized form. Models help geographers analyze spatial features, processes, and relationships. For example:
Distance decay is a principle that states that the farther away one thing is from another, the less interaction the two things will have.
Distance decay is connected to friction of distance, a concept that states that distance requires time, effort, and cost to overcome.
Time-space compression describes the processes causing the relative distance between places to shrink.
A key geographic principle that is related to friction of distance.
Modern transportation has greatly reduced travel times.
A map illustrating time-space compression.
Location and Place
This section is mainly just definitions. Still important.
Location is the position that a point or object occupies on Earth.
Location can be expressed in absolute or relative terms.
Absolute location is the exact location of an object. It is usually expressed in coordinates of longitude and latitude.
Relative location is a description of where a place is in relation to other places or features.
A place is a location on Earth that is distinguished by its physical and human characteristics.
Sense of place refers to the emotions attached to an area based on personal experiences. This can include baseball stadiums, architecture, and historic landmarks.
When someone has a strong sense of place in an area, they usually have a mental map of that area.
A mental map is the internalized representations of portions of Earth’s surface. Your mental map helps you know where you are and where you are going.
A mental map depends on many factors, including your experiences, your age, and where you live.
Human geographers focus on two factors that influence how humans use a particular place.
The first factor is site, which refers to a place’s absolute location, as well as its physical characteristics, such as the land forms, climate, and resources.
Site describes a place’s location based on longitude and latitude, and what it looks like.
The second factor is situation, which refers to a place’s location in relation to other places or its surrounding features.
Situation describes a place’s connections to other places, such as transportation routes (like roads, rail lines, and waterways), political associations, and economic and cultural ties
Space, Pattern, and Flow
When geographers think geographically, they are considering the arrangement of things in space.
Space in this instance refers to the area between two or more things on Earth’s surface
Distribution is the way objects are arranged within a given space.
Studying the ways in which things are distributed can help human geographers describe and analyze the organization of people, places, and environments on Earth.
Density and pattern are key concepts in the examination of distribution.
Density is the number of things—people, animals, or objects—in a specific area.
For example, a city like London, a more urban area, will have a higher population density than Seward, a more rural area.
Pattern is how things are arranged in a particular space.
Depending on how humans settled and developed a place, they may be arranged in a particular order.
Any given space changes over time as things move from one place to another.
Flow is how people move from place to place.
Human-Environment Interaction
Regardless of where people live, they depend upon, adapt to, and modify the environment. Sustainability is a crucial part of human-environment interaction.
Sustainability is the use of Earth’s land and natural resources in ways that ensure they will continue to be available in the future.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
The UN’s goals include the elimination of poverty and hunger, increased access to quality education, and gender equality.
Sustainable land use requires consideration of whether a particular natural resource is renewable, meaning nature produces it faster than people consume it, or nonrenewable, meaning people consume it faster than nature produces it.
Theories of Interaction
There are two main theories of human-environment interaction:
Environmental determinism argues that human behavior is largely controlled by the physical environment.
According to this theory, a region’s climate and soil fertility dictate how a society develops as it adapts to the environment.
This is an outdated theory, as it fails to address the modern world and developing technology.
Possibilism argues that humans have more agency, or ability to produce a result, than environmental determinism. Humans are able to adapt to whatever climate is presented to them.
Scales and Regions
The concept of scale in AP Human Geography is different from how distance on a map compares to distance on the ground.
Scale refers to the area of the world being studied, usually shown in a map. This can be on local, regional, national, or global scales.
A region is an area of Earth’s surface with certain characteristics that make it distinct from other areas. There are multiple types of regions.
A formal/uniform region is an area that has one or more shared traits.
These traits can be cultural (language or religion), physical (landform, climate area), or a combination of traits defined by data (measures of a population, income, ethnicity, blah blah blah you get the point).
A functional region is defined as an area organized by its function around a focal point, or the center of an interest or activity.
A node is the focal point of a functional region.
Nodes serve particular functions and purposes, usually political, social, or economic, and have internal connections that tie the region together.
A perceptual/vernacular region is a type of region that reflects people’s feelings and attitudes about a place. No one can fully agree on it.
The “Middle East” and the “Midwest” are perceptual regions, as the Middle East is defined as one of the holiest regions on Earth, and the Midwest is defined as having a friendly population and being mostly rural. However, people may disagree on these definitions, which is the point.
Globalization and Localization
Over the past half century, the nations of the world have become increasingly connected and integrated through globalization.
Globalization is the expansion of economic, cultural, and political processes on a worldwide scale.
A number of factors have contributed to globalization, including:
lower production costs,
advances in transportation technology,
the internet,
and social media apps
Government policies have played a major part in globalization as well.
Trade deals throughout the world have lifted restrictions and made movement of goods and jobs across borders happen more easily.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) allowed companies in the USA, Canada, and Mexico to sell goods and hire workers in any of the three countries. In 2018, the countries renegotiated NAFTA and drafted a similar pact called the U.S.-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA).
In Europe, the European Union (EU) formed in 1993, in part to allow people and goods to easily pass from country to country.
Wallerstein’s World System Theory
In AP Human Geography, theories are used very often and help you understand geographic concepts.
A theory is a system of ideas intended to explain certain phenomena.
In the 1970s, sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein developed the world system theory to describe the spatial and functional relationships between countries in the world economy.
Wallerstein’s World System Theory is a theory that categorizes countries into a three-tiered structure: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. It helps explain the history of uneven economic development among countries and the reasons why certain regions have held onto political and economic power over long periods of time.
Core: Wealthier countries with higher education levels and more advanced technology are considered part of the core.
Semi-periphery: Countries where both core and periphery processes occur are labeled semi-periphery.
Periphery: Countries that have less wealth, lower education levels, and less sophisticated technology are considered part of the periphery.
Core | Semi-Periphery | Periphery |
|---|---|---|
Economically and politically dominant on the world stage. | Have core and periphery processes occurring. | Often have unstable governments. |
Strong military and powerful allies. | In the process of industrializing. | Less wealth, lower levels of education than core. |
Highly interconnected transportation and communication networks. | Often active in manufacturing and exporting of goods. | Export natural resources to core countries. |
Infrastructure that supports economic activity. | Better transportation and communication networks than periphery. | Inferior transportation and communication networks. |
Control the global market. | Have potential to grow into core country. | Inadequate infrastructure for supporting economic activity. |
World system theory states that the three types of countries form a power hierarchy, with core at the top, periphery at the bottom, and semi-periphery in between.
Core countries exploit semi-periphery countries, and semi-periphery countries exploit periphery countries.
Data Collection
Geographers use a variety of methods for collecting data. Geographic information is any data with a location tied to it, such as a street address or its elevation.
There are two different types of data collected by observation and recording information.
Quantitative data is information measured by numbers, such as a city’s population.
Qualitative data are interpretations of data sources such as field observations, media reports, travel narratives, personal interviews, art, and photographs.
When performing a study, both types of data should be collected.
Countless organizations, both public and private, collect and analyze data. The U.S. Census Bureau, for example, conducts a census of the U.S. population every 10 years, and also multiple types of surveys.
a census is an official count of the number of people in a defined area, such as a state.
Geographic Information Systems
Geospatial technologies encompass the modern tools used to analyze data about specific locations across the globe.
The development of sophisticated mapping software systems called geographic information systems (GIS) has immensely helped geographers and others with their work.
Geographic information systems (GIS) captures, stores, organizes, and displays geographic data that can then be used to configure both simple and complex maps (NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH GPS)
Such maps are created by organizing layers of information to form a combined image.
Topography is the shape and features of land surfaces, and can be displayed using GIS.
GIS can also display demographic information about the people who live in a certain place, such as age, ethnicity, income, or family size.
Support geovisualization, which is the process of creating visuals for geographic analysis using maps, graphs and media.
GIS-created map of traffic in Toronto.
Other Remote Sensing Tools
A variety of geospatial technologies gather data; some do so remotely, or without making physical contact. This method of collecting data is called remote sensing.
Remote sensing is a method of collecting data remotely without making physical contact with the data being collected.
Satellites take images of sections of Earth at regular intervals to determine changes that occur on the surface. Then the remotely-sensed images are brought into GIS along with other data for comparison and analysis. Comparing satellite images can help identify phenomena such as trends in urban development or the shrinking of the polar ice caps.
Another source of geographic data is the global positioning system (GPS).
The global positioning system (GPS) is an integrated network of at least 31 satellites in the U.S. system that orbit Earth and transmit location data to handheld receivers.
a GPS receiver uses the time it takes to receive a transmitted signal to measure the distance to each satellite. The receiver uses this data to pinpoint the exact location of the receiver. The accuracy of the information allows people to determine the precise distance between two points, making GPS especially useful for navigation purposes.
Pilots of airplanes and ships use GPS to stay on course.
Smartphones and automobiles also are equipped with GPS receivers, enabling motorists to receive instructions for the fastest or most direct route to a desired destination.
Maps and Map-making
Maps are the fundamental tool most uniquely identified with geography. People have used maps to depict information for thousands of years, and they continue to use increasingly sophisticated maps today.
Centuries ago, cartographers created maps to help explorers follow the routes of those who came before them and to estimate how long it might take to travel uncharted lands.
Patterns in our world are seldom random; spatial features tend to be clustered, dispersed, or linear. To describe the spacing of places or people, the terms absolute distance and relative distance are used.
Absolute distance is distance that can be measured using a standard unit of length.
ex: Los Angeles is exactly 10.4 miles away from here.
Relative distance is measured in terms of other criteria, such as time or money.
ex: It takes around 34 minutes to get to Los Angeles, and the bus trip costs $10 to get there.
Other terms:
Absolute direction is the cardinal directions north, south, east, and west.
Relative direction is the directions left, right, up, down, front, or behind which are based on people’s perceptions
All used to describe the direction and location when interpreting maps.
Map Scale
Maps can show information at almost any scale, from the entire world to a neighborhood, to a school, or even a classroom.
A map scale is the mathematical relationship between the size of a map and the part of the real world it shows.
Allows you to measure absolute distance.
The scale of a map is an important clue to the level of detail portrayed on the map as well as the purpose of the map.
Large-scale Map | Medium-scale Map | Small-scale Map |
|---|---|---|
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This detailed map shows only the city of Charlotte, North Carolina. The map scale shows that a half inch on the map represents a quarter mile on Earth’s surface.
This map shows the entire state of North Carolina. It includes fewer details than the large-scale map and shows a larger area. The map scale shows that three-quarters of an inch on the map represents 100 miles on Earth’s surface.
This map identifies the Atlantic coast states from Florida to Maine. It covers a large area and shows even fewer details than the medium-scale map. The map scale shows that a half inch on the map represents 200 miles on Earth’s surface.Map Projections
Cartographers are tasked with using just two dimensions to represent a three-dimensional object—Earth. A sphere cannot be flattened onto a piece of paper or screen without altering its original shape.
Over time, cartographers have developed various mathematical equations to handle the distortion, or misleading impressions, of Earth’s surface that occur during the mapmaking process.
A map projection is any method used to represent the world or part of the world in two dimensions.
Different projections distort spatial relations in shape, area, direction, or distance.
Within the broad categories of projections, including conformal, cylindrical, and equal-area, are four common projection types: Robinson, Mercator, Gall-Peters, and azimuthal.
Robinson | Mercator | Gall-Peters | Azimuthal |
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The shapes of the continents become more distorted farther away from the equator or the map’s central meridian.
The continents’ shapes are maintained and direction is displayed accurately, but the sizes of the continents are very distorted.
The relative size of the continents is more easily displayed than with other projections, but the shape of the continents is distorted.
A flattened disk-shaped portion of Earth is shown from a specific point.Each projection has advantages and limitations and distorts the sizes and shapes of Earth’s landmasses in different ways. The different projections also handle direction differently.
Mercator Projection
Advantages:
Shows true direction
Good for navigation purposes
Limitations:
Distorts area
Size is distorted increasingly near the poles
Gall-Peters Projection
Advantages:
Shows true direction
Area is relatively precise
Limitations:
Distorts shape
Continents appear elongated
Robinson Projection
Advantages:
A globe-like appearance that “looks real”
Distorts size and shape, but not too much
Limitations:
Imprecise measurements
Extreme distortion at the poles; flat on the poles and compressed near the equator
Azimuthal Projection
Advantages:
Preserves direction
When used from the point of the North Pole, no country is seen as center
Limitations:
Distorts shape and area
Only shows one half of Earth
Types of Maps
There are two major categories of maps: reference and thematic.
Reference maps are generalized sources of geographic data and focus on location.
Thematic maps have a theme or specific purpose and focus on the relationship among geographic data.
Reference maps simply illustrate the boundaries, names, and other unique identifiers of places and regions. They focus on the location of geospatial elements such as countries, cities, lakes, and other features of a landscape.
Examples of reference maps include:
Physical maps, which primarily show landforms and other natural features.
Political maps, which primarily show boundaries between governmental units like countries or states.
However, thematic maps have many ways they can depict data, and usually only focuses on a particular topic or theme.
Type and Image | Information |
| Lines connect data points of the same value. Isoline maps are used to show particular characteristics of an area. On this temperature map, isolines represent bands of similar surface temperatures and the black lines show areas of high and low air pressure across the United States. |
| Differently sized symbols are used to indicate quantitative data. Bigger circles or icons represent a larger numerical value of a particular attribute. A graduated symbols map is useful for showing population, earthquake magnitude, or, as in this map, gasoline consumption. |
| Statistical data and geographic location are combined to communicate information at a glance. Cartograms show the relative size of an area based on a particular attribute, like population or energy consumption. Sometimes geographic regions are distorted to convey quantity or extent. |
| Dots are used to show locations of specific observations or events. Dot maps are useful for showing statistics like crimes, births, or car accidents. In this map, the clusters of dots reveal the distribution of milk cows across the United States. |
| This thematic map uses colors or shading to represent categories of data for predetermined geographic areas such as census tracts, counties, states, provinces, or countries. Choropleth maps are useful for communicating quantitative data, such as demographics or election results. |
Isoline Map
Graduated Symbols Map
Cartogram
Dot Map
Chloropleth MapUnit 2: (still being worked on!)
Patterns of Population
Population Distribution
Geographers analyze where people live, differences among populations, changes within populations, and the reasons for each.
Population distribution—where people live within a geographic area—affects the cultural, political, environmental, and economic aspects and conditions in any given area.
There are four main types of distribution, which is depicted in the following image.
Global distributions of people are influenced by physical, environmental, and human factors.
Climate refers to the long-term patterns of weather in an area that greatly affect population distribution in direct and indirect ways.
Landforms also influence population distribution. They are natural features of Earth’s surface.
In addition to physical and environmental factors, changing human factors—such as economics, politics, culture, and history—influence the distribution of human populations on many scales.
Economic factors are factors that influence where people move by where they can earn a living through agriculture, natural resource extraction, manufacturing, sales, and a variety of other activities.
Human migration occurs when people make a permanent move from one place to another
Political factors are dissatisfaction with someone’s current government or political system, and that person may voluntarily migrate to another country or region within the same country.
Unstable political circumstances or war may also compel citizens to leave their home countries or regions.
Cultural factors include housing availability, safety, access to transportation, and a feeling of belonging and community, which may serve as initial reasons to live in a certain place.
Cultural factors that influence changes in population include religion, the roles and status of women—including the socialization of men and women within their cultural norms—and familial attitudes regarding marriage and children.
Historical factors include history and significant events that took place in the past.
It is often intertwined with other physical, enviromental, and human factors.
Measuring Population Density
Population density, which is the number of people occupying a unit of land, is an important aspect of population. Geographers use three methods to calculate population density: arithmetic density, physiological density, and agricultural density. Each method uses a different land unit to provide key information about the pressure population exerts on the land.
Arithmetic density measures the total number of people per unit area of land.
Physiological density is the total number of people per unit of arable land, which is land that can be used to grow crops.
Agricultural density measures the total number of farmers per unit of arable land.