02The EmpireKM
The Evolution of the Empire
The Four Stages of Evolution (Jackson, 2013, p. 72)
The First Empire: The Atlantic Empire (16th century - American Revolution)
Internal colonization with Protestant plantations in Ireland (16th century) - Ulster as the prototype plantation.
Competition with France for North American territories.
Result of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763): France cedes New France to Britain via the Treaty of Paris. This includes Quebec, which retains its language and civil law.
The American Revolution and War of Independence (1775-1783) ultimately results in the loss of the American colonies.
The Second Empire: The Swing to the East
Following the loss of American colonies, Britain's focus shifts eastward.
Australia (1770): Captain Cook claims it as terra nullius; explores New Zealand.
New South Wales established (1788) by Arthur Phillip, encompassing both Australia and presumed New Zealand.
The East India Company (chartered in 1600) opens India for trade, effectively ruling until the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the Crown takes over.
The Scramble for Africa (1881-1914) as a response to competition from Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Post-WWI: Britain gains territories from Germany (Palestine, Iraq) as mandates.
The Third Empire: The British Commonwealth
Formation of a bloc of white settler colonies granted equal status within the empire.
Statute of Westminster (1931) establishes autonomy for Dominions: Canada (1867), Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), South Africa (1910), Irish Free State (1922), and Newfoundland (1907).
The Fourth Empire: The Commonwealth of Nations
Rapid decolonization post-WWII, debunking the myth of ‘managed decline’.
India and Pakistan gain independence in 1947; India becomes a republic while remaining in the Commonwealth without pledging allegiance to the Crown.
Today, 52 nations form the Commonwealth, based primarily on shared history and culture.
Key Features of the Empire
The Empire as an Economic Entity
Mercantilism dominated from the 16th to the 18th century.
Triangle Trade: Involves slave transport from Africa to plantations, cash crops from the Americas to England, and re-exporting manufactured goods back to Europe and Africa.
Navigation Acts: Laws restricting colonial trade only to England; first enacted in 1651, repealed in 1849.
Rise of London as a key trading hub thanks to these practices.
Slavery arises with Caribbean sugar cane plantations.
From the 19th century, a shift to free trade as Britain emerges as the leading global economy.
Industrial Revolution driven by advances in transport (steam engine), communication (telegraph), and sanitation.
Britain becomes known as the workshop of the world, utilizing resources from its empire.
Notable quote by John Stuart Mill addressing colonies as estates for British production.
The Empire as a Political Entity
Governance Challenges: Managing vast, diverse territories with differing governance structures and societies lacking technology to regulate distances.
Rules adapted to the diversity of societies including tribes, kingdoms, and empires.
The British approach was characterized by minimal costs, flexibility, and avoiding costly wars whenever possible.
Examples include settler migration, treaties with natives, and reliance on local elites as junior partners in governance.
Racial Divisions within the Empire
Historians note a division along racial lines within the empire:
A. White-dominated settler states; self-governing colonies.
B. Non-white populations ruled by a British upper class.
Racial policies marginalized Indigenous populations and enforced exclusions; e.g., boarding schools to ‘civilize’ native children.
Legislative acts restricted immigration from Asian countries based on racial discrimination.
Strategic and Military Systems: Maritime Strength
The empire leveraged naval strength to expand and enforce power. Key events:
Piracy, naval battles against the Dutch and French.
Key military bases established globally to maintain control and respond to threats.
Activities included:
Abolishing slavery (1833) while intercepting slave ships.
The Opium Wars against China to enforce trade.
The Ideology of Colonization
Theoretical Underpinnings
Cultural Evolution Theories: Hierarchies of races justified the superiority of British civilization.
Pseudo-scientific theories like eugenics did not gain widespread support but reflect contemporary views on race.
The Colonization of the Mind
British imperial ideology framed itself as a civilizing mission, dismissing native culture as inferior, leading to internalized feelings of inadequacy among colonized peoples.
The Legacy of the Empire
Knowledge and Institutions
The British Empire fostered significant knowledge acquisition:
Advances in cartography, scientific exploration (e.g., Darwin), and cataloging local languages.
Environmental Impact
Transporting of plants and animals disrupted local ecosystems and led to environmental challenges.
Establishment of plantations using slave labor further altered land use.
Built Environment
Creation of new urban centers and infrastructure (roads, railways, telegraph). Emergence of a shared English language as a global lingua franca.
Political Legacy
The Commonwealth of Nations serves as a reminder and a platform for former colonies, grappling with their new identities post-colonization.
The British legacy is viewed through conflicting lenses: from prosperity and globalization to exploitation and cultural loss.
Conclusion
The British Empire's role remains contested as either a force for globalization or a source of oppression, making any assessment of its legacy complex and nuanced.