AP Psychology : Midterm

AP PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERM REVIEW

Unit 0: An Introduction to Psychological Science Practices: Research Methods and Data Interpretation

Critical thinking: The ability to think carefully and logically, to evaluate information, and to make decisions based on evidence and reasoning.

Hindsight bias: The tendency to believe, after an event has happened, that we "knew it all along" or that the outcome was predictable.

Peer reviewers: Experts in a specific field who review and evaluate research studies before they are published to ensure the quality and accuracy of the work.

Theory: A well-established idea or explanation based on evidence that explains a wide range of observations and can predict future events.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction or educated guess about how things work, usually based on a theory.

 Operational definition: A clear and specific description of how a variable is measured or defined in a study.

Replication: Repeating a research study to see if the same results can be obtained, helping confirm the findings.

Case study: An in-depth investigation of a single person, group, or event to learn more about a specific phenomenon.

Naturalistic observation: Watching and recording behavior in its natural setting, without trying to control or influence it.

 Survey: A method of collecting data by asking people questions to learn about their attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.

Social desirability bias: When people respond to questions in a way that they think will be viewed favorably by others, rather than truthfully.

Self-report bias: A type of bias where people may not accurately report their own behaviors, feelings, or attitudes, often because they want to present themselves in a certain way.

 Sampling bias: When the sample (group of people) chosen for a study is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate conclusions.

 Random sample: A method of selecting participants where each individual has an equal chance of being chosen, helping to ensure the sample represents the population.

Population: The entire group of people or things that a study is trying to understand or make conclusions about.

Correlation: A relationship or connection between two variables, showing how one might change when the other changes.

Correlation coefficient: A number that describes the strength and direction of a correlation, ranging from -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive), with 0 meaning no correlation.

 Variable: Any factor, trait, or condition that can change or be measured in an experiment (e.g., age, height, temperature).

Scatterplot: A graph that shows the relationship between two variables by plotting data points on a grid, with one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis.

Illusory correlation: The mistaken belief that two events or variables are related, when in fact they are not (e.g., thinking that wearing a certain color brings good luck).

Regression toward the mean: The tendency for extreme or unusual outcomes to return to more typical, average levels over time.

Experiment: A research method where an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe their effect on other variables, often to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Experimental group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation being tested.

Control group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used as a baseline to compare against the experimental group.

 Random assignment: The process of randomly assigning participants to either the experimental or control group in an experiment, to ensure that each person has an equal chance of being in either group.

Single-blind procedure: A research method in which the participants do not know which group (experimental or control) they are in, but the experimenters do. This helps reduce bias from participants' expectations.

Double-blind procedure: A research method where both the participants and the experimenters do not know which group (experimental or control) the participants are in. This helps reduce both participant and experimenter biases.

Placebo effect: When people experience changes in their condition simply because they believe they are receiving a treatment, even if it's an inactive substance (like a sugar pill).

Independent variable: The variable that is intentionally manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on another variable.

Confounding variable: A factor that may interfere with or confuse the results of an experiment by affecting both the independent and dependent variables, making it hard to determine what caused the outcome.

Experimenter bias: When the experimenter's expectations or preferences influence the results of the study, either consciously or unconsciously.

Dependent variable: The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment to see how it changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable.

 Validity: The degree to which a study or experiment accurately measures or tests what it is intended to measure or test. It ensures that the results are reliable and reflect the true relationship between variables.

Quantitative research: Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, or trends (e.g., surveys, experiments).

 Qualitative research: Research that explores non-numerical data, such as words, images, or observations, to understand concepts, experiences, or social phenomena in depth.

Informed consent: The process of providing participants with clear, understandable information about a study and obtaining their agreement to participate voluntarily, ensuring they know what to expect.

Debriefing: The process of informing participants about the true purpose of a study after it is completed, especially if there was any deception used, and addressing any concerns or questions they may have.

 Descriptive statistics: Methods used to summarize and describe the main features of a dataset, such as averages, percentages, or frequencies.

Histogram: A type of bar graph used to represent the frequency distribution of numerical data, with bars showing how often each range of values occurs.

 Mode: The value that appears most frequently in a dataset.

Mean: The average of a set of numbers, calculated by adding them up and dividing by the total number of values.

Median: The middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in order from smallest to largest. If there’s an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.

Percentile rank: The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a particular score. For example, a score in the 90th percentile is higher than 90% of the other scores.

Skewed distribution: A distribution where the data is not evenly spread around the mean, causing it to have a long tail on one side. It can be positively skewed (tail on the right) or negatively skewed (tail on the left).

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. It shows the spread of the data.

Standard deviation: A measure of how spread out the values in a dataset are. A larger standard deviation means the data points are more spread out from the mean, while a smaller standard deviation means they are closer to the mean.

 Normal curve: A bell-shaped curve that represents a normal distribution of data, where most of the values cluster around the mean, with fewer values farther away from it. It’s symmetrical and follows a predictable pattern.

Inferential statistics: Techniques used to make generalizations or predictions about a population based on a sample of data. It helps researchers make inferences beyond the data at hand.

Meta-analysis: A research method that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to draw a more reliable and comprehensive conclusion.

Statistical significance: The likelihood that a result or finding is not due to chance. If a result is statistically significant, it means there’s strong evidence that the effect or relationship is real.

 Effect size: A measure of the strength or magnitude of a relationship or difference in a study. Larger effect sizes indicate stronger effects or relationships between variables.

Challenges and dependencies: Refers to the obstacles (e.g., biases, limitations in data) and factors that rely on other variables or conditions when conducting research or interpreting results. It emphasizes that research findings can depend on various factors, and challenges may arise that affect the outcome or interpretation of the data.

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

Nature–nurture issue: The debate about whether our traits and behaviors are primarily influenced by our genetic makeup (nature) or by our environment and experiences (nurture).

Charles Darwin: The English naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, which suggests that species evolve over time through the survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits.

Natural selection: The process by which organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce are more likely to pass those traits on to future generations, leading to evolution.

Evolutionary psychology: The study of how human behavior and mental processes may have been shaped by evolutionary pressures and the need to survive and reproduce.

Behavior genetics: The field that explores how genetic factors and the environment work together to influence behaviors, traits, and mental processes.

Mutation: A change in a gene or chromosome that can result in new traits, and can sometimes contribute to evolutionary changes over generations.

Environment: The external factors and conditions that influence an organism, including physical surroundings, social interactions, and cultural influences.

Heredity: The passing of genetic traits from parents to offspring through the transmission of genes.

Genes: Segments of DNA that contain the instructions for inherited traits and biological functions.

Genome: The complete set of genetic material (DNA) in an organism, which includes all the genes that provide the instructions for its development, growth, and functioning.

Identical (monozygotic) twins: Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg and share nearly identical genetic material.

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins: Twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm cells and share about 50% of their genetic material, like regular siblings.

Interaction: The way in which different factors, such as genetics and environment, work together to influence a particular outcome or behavior.

Epigenetics: The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression and how these changes can be passed onto future generations without altering the DNA sequence.

Nervous system: The body’s network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to control and coordinate actions, sensations, and other functions.

Central nervous system (CNS): The brain and spinal cord, which are responsible for processing and sending signals throughout the body.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The network of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Nerves: Bundles of neurons (nerve cells) that transmit electrical signals throughout the body, allowing communication between the brain, spinal cord, and other body parts.

Sensory (afferent) neurons: Nerve cells that carry information from sensory receptors (such as the skin, eyes, or ears) to the central nervous system.

Motor (efferent) neurons: Nerve cells that carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands, enabling movement and bodily functions.

Interneurons: Neurons located within the central nervous system that process and transmit information between sensory and motor neurons.

Somatic nervous system: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements by sending signals to skeletal muscles.

Autonomic (ANS) nervous system: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which regulate the body's response to stress and relaxation.

Sympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for "fight or flight" in stressful situations, increasing heart rate and energy.

Parasympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body down after stress, slowing the heart rate and promoting relaxation and digestion.

Reflex: An automatic, quick response to a stimulus that doesn’t require conscious thought, like pulling your hand away from a hot surface.

Neuron: A nerve cell that transmits electrical signals throughout the body, allowing communication between the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the body.

Cell body: The main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles, responsible for maintaining the cell’s functions.

Dendrites: Branch-like structures on a neuron that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.

Axon: The long, thin part of a neuron that carries electrical signals away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin sheath: A fatty layer that surrounds the axon, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals and protecting the neuron.

Glial cells (glia): Support cells in the nervous system that provide nourishment, remove waste, and protect neurons.

Action potential: An electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron, allowing it to communicate with other cells.

Threshold: The minimum level of stimulation required for a neuron to generate an action potential.

Refractory period: A brief period after a neuron fires an action potential during which it cannot fire another action potential.

All-or-none response: The principle that a neuron either fires at full strength or not at all, with no partial firing.

Synapse: The tiny gap between two neurons where signals are transmitted from one neuron to another.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.

Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them, ending the signal transmission.

Endorphins: Natural chemicals produced by the brain that reduce pain and increase feelings of pleasure or happiness.

Agonist: A substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

Antagonist: A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

Endocrine system: The network of glands that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate various bodily functions such as metabolism, mood, and growth.

Psychoactive drug: A substance that alters mood, perception, or consciousness by affecting the brain and nervous system.

Substance use disorder: A condition characterized by the harmful use of substances (e.g., alcohol, drugs) that leads to addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms.

Depressants: Drugs that slow down the central nervous system, such as alcohol and barbiturates, leading to relaxation and sedation.

Tolerance: A condition where a person needs more of a substance to achieve the same effect due to repeated use.

Addiction: A compulsive need to use a substance or engage in a behavior despite negative consequences.

Withdrawal: The physical and psychological symptoms that occur when someone stops using a substance to which they have become addicted.

Barbiturates: A class of depressant drugs that can calm anxiety or induce sleep but are addictive and dangerous in high doses.

Opioids: A class of drugs, including painkillers like morphine and heroin, that act on the brain’s opioid receptors to relieve pain and produce euphoria, but are highly addictive.

Stimulants: Drugs that increase activity in the central nervous system, like caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine, leading to increased alertness and energy.

Hallucinogens: Drugs that cause altered perceptions of reality, such as LSD or magic mushrooms, often leading to visual or auditory hallucinations.

Near-death experience: A profound psychological event that may occur when someone is close to death, often involving feelings of peace, a sense of leaving the body, or seeing a bright light.

Biological psychology: The branch of psychology that studies the connection between the brain, nervous system, and behavior, including how biological processes affect psychological states.

Biopsychosocial approach: An approach to understanding human behavior that considers biological, psychological, and social factors and how they interact.

Levels of analysis: Different perspectives for studying psychological phenomena, such as biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels.

Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experience, learning, or injury by forming new neural connections.

Lesion: A damage or injury to a part of the brain, often used in research to study the effects of brain damage on behavior.

EEG (electroencephalogram): A test that measures the electrical activity of the brain by placing electrodes on the scalp, used to diagnose conditions like epilepsy.

MEG (magnetoencephalography): A technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by brain activity, offering high temporal resolution of brain function.

CT (computed tomography) scan: A type of X-ray that creates detailed images of the brain or body to detect structural abnormalities or damage.

PET (positron emission tomography): A brain imaging technique that detects brain activity by measuring the use of radioactive glucose, showing which areas of the brain are active during tasks.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain and body structures, helping detect abnormalities.

fMRI (functional MRI): A type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, allowing researchers to observe brain function in real-time.

Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain, including structures like the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, responsible for basic life functions like breathing, heartbeat, and movement coordination.

Midbrain: The region of the brain involved in processing sensory information, controlling movement, and regulating arousal and attention.

Forebrain: The largest part of the brain, responsible for complex functions like thinking, memory, emotion, and voluntary movement, including the thalamus and limbic system.

Brainstem: The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord, controlling basic functions like breathing, heartbeat, and reflexes.

Medulla: The part of the brainstem that controls vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

Thalamus: The brain’s sensory relay center, which directs incoming sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the brain.

Reticular formation: A network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a key role in regulating sleep, alertness, and arousal.

Cerebellum: The part of the brain at the back of the head that coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and motor skills.

Limbic system: A group of structures in the brain involved in emotions, memory, and motivation, including the amygdala and hippocampus.

Amygdala: A small, almond-shaped structure in the brain involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus: A region of the brain responsible for regulating basic functions like hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep, as well as controlling the endocrine system through hormone release.

Hippocampus: A brain structure involved in forming new memories and processing spatial navigation.

Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain, responsible for complex functions like thought, perception, reasoning, and voluntary movement.

Frontal lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located at the front of the brain, responsible for decision-making, planning, problem-solving, and voluntary motor control.

Parietal lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located at the top of the brain, responsible for processing sensory information related to touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.

Occipital lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain, primarily responsible for processing visual information.

Temporal lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located on the sides of the brain, involved in processing auditory information, memory, and language.

Motor cortex: A region in the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements by sending signals to the muscles.

Somatosensory cortex: A region in the parietal lobes that processes sensory information from the body, such as touch, pain, and temperature.

Association areas: Brain regions that are involved in higher-level cognitive functions, such as learning, memory, language, and decision-making.

Neurogenesis: The process by which new neurons are created in the brain, particularly in areas like the hippocampus.

Corpus callosum: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.

Roger Sperry: A neuroscientist known for his research on split-brain patients, studying how the two hemispheres of the brain function independently.

Michael Gazzaniga: A neuroscientist who worked with Roger Sperry and contributed significantly to the understanding of split-brain patients and the role of each hemisphere in cognition.

Split brain: A condition resulting from a surgical procedure in which the corpus callosum is severed, causing the two hemispheres of the brain to operate independently.

Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think about one’s thoughts, surroundings, and experiences.

Cognitive neuroscience: The study of the brain's role in mental processes like perception, memory, decision-making, and consciousness.

Dual processing: The principle that the brain processes information through two separate systems: one for conscious, deliberate thinking (controlled) and another for automatic, unconscious processing (automatic).

Blindsight: A condition where individuals are able to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, usually due to damage to the primary visual cortex.

Parallel processing: The brain's ability to process multiple aspects of a problem simultaneously, such as recognizing faces, voices, and objects all at once.

Sequential processing: The brain’s ability to process information step by step, typically for tasks that require attention, such as reading or solving problems.

Sleep: A natural state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by reduced awareness of the surroundings, decreased motor activity, and changes in brain activity.

Circadian rhythm: The 24-hour biological cycle that regulates various bodily functions, such as sleep-wake patterns, body temperature, and hormone release.

REM sleep: A stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and increased brain activity, essential for memory consolidation and emotional regulation.

Alpha waves: Brainwave patterns associated with relaxed, awake states, typically seen when a person is calm but alert.

NREM sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep, which includes stages of deep sleep that are important for physical restoration and growth.

Hallucinations: Perceptions of things that are not actually present, such as seeing or hearing things that others cannot.

Hypnagogic sensations: Sensory experiences that occur as one is falling asleep, such as feeling like you're floating or hearing sounds that aren’t real.

Delta waves: Slow brainwave patterns associated with deep sleep (particularly NREM stages 3 and 4), linked to physical restoration.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): A small cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that regulates the circadian rhythm, helping the body maintain a 24-hour cycle.

Insomnia: A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, often leading to fatigue or daytime impairment.

Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep, often triggered by strong emotions.

Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder where a person’s breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, leading to poor sleep quality and daytime fatigue.

REM sleep behavior disorder: A condition in which a person acts out their dreams during REM sleep, often resulting in violent or disruptive movements.

Dream: A series of images, thoughts, and feelings experienced during sleep, particularly during REM sleep, that can involve vivid storytelling or emotions.

Sigmund Freud: The famous psychologist who proposed that dreams are a way to express unconscious desires and thoughts.

REM rebound: The phenomenon in which a person experiences longer or more intense REM sleep after being deprived of it for a period of time.

Sensation: The process of receiving and detecting stimuli from the environment through sensory organs, such as eyes, ears, and skin.

Sensory receptors: Specialized cells located in sensory organs that detect stimuli (e.g., light, sound, temperature) and send signals to the brain.

Perception: The process of organizing, interpreting, and giving meaning to the sensory information received by the brain.

Bottom-up processing: A method of perception that starts with the raw sensory data (e.g., light or sound) and builds up to a complete understanding of the stimulus.

Top-down processing: A method of perception that starts with higher-level cognitive processes, such as expectations and knowledge, to interpret sensory information.

Transduction: The process of converting physical stimuli (such as light or sound) into neural signals that the brain can interpret.

Psychophysics: The study of how physical stimuli (like light or sound) relate to psychological experiences (such as brightness or loudness).

Gustav Fechner: A psychologist who founded the field of psychophysics and developed methods for measuring the relationship between physical stimuli and sensations.

Absolute threshold: The minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory: A theory explaining how and when we detect faint signals, considering both the intensity of the stimulus and the individual's psychological state.

Subliminal: Below the threshold of conscious awareness; stimuli that are too weak to be detected consciously but may still influence behavior.

Priming: A technique in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, often without conscious awareness.

Difference threshold: The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time.

Ernst Weber: A psychologist known for his work on the just noticeable difference (JND) and the development of Weber’s law.

Weber’s law: A principle stating that the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus. For example, the larger the stimulus, the larger the change needed to detect a difference.

Sensory adaptation: The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it, such as not noticing a strong odor after being in a room for a while.

Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs of a wave, determining properties like color in light waves and pitch in sound waves.

Hue: The color we perceive, which is determined by the wavelength of light. For example, red has a longer wavelength, while blue has a shorter wavelength.

Intensity: The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which determines how bright or loud the stimulus appears to be.

Cornea: The clear, protective outer layer of the eye that helps focus light onto the retina.

Pupil: The black, circular opening in the center of the eye that controls the amount of light entering by dilating or constricting.

Iris: The colored part of the eye that surrounds the pupil and controls its size, thus regulating the amount of light that enters the eye.

Lens: A transparent structure behind the iris that focuses light onto the retina to form an image.

Retina: The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) responsible for converting light into neural signals.

Accommodation: The process by which the lens of the eye changes shape to focus on objects at different distances.

Rods: Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light and help us see in dim light but do not detect color.

Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect color and are responsible for sharp, detailed vision in bright light.

Optic nerve: The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

Blind spot: The point in the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye, containing no photoreceptor cells, so it creates a spot where we cannot see.

Fovea: The central part of the retina, where cones are densely packed, providing the sharpest vision.

Young–Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory: A theory that suggests color vision is based on three primary colors: red, green, and blue. These colors combine in different ways to produce the full spectrum of visible colors.

Opponent-process theory: A theory that suggests we perceive color through opposing color pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white. When one color in a pair is stimulated, the other is inhibited.

David Hubel: A neuroscientist known for his research on how the brain processes visual information, particularly his work on the visual cortex and feature detectors.

Torsten Wiesel: A neuroscientist who, along with David Hubel, discovered how the brain processes visual information through specialized neurons.

Feature detectors: Neurons that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as edges, angles, or movement.

Parallel processing: The brain's ability to process multiple aspects of information (like color, shape, and motion) at the same time.

Audition: The sense of hearing.

Frequency: The number of sound waves that pass a point in a given time, which determines pitch.

Pitch: How high or low a sound is.

Middle ear: The part of the ear that amplifies sound, including the eardrum and ossicles (tiny bones).

Cochlea: A spiral-shaped part of the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into neural signals.

Inner ear: The part of the ear that contains the cochlea and auditory nerve, responsible for hearing.

Sensorineural hearing loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve.

Conduction hearing loss: Hearing loss caused by problems in the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from reaching the inner ear.

Cochlear implant: A device that helps people with severe hearing loss by directly stimulating the auditory nerve.

Place theory: A theory that suggests different parts of the cochlea respond to different sound frequencies.

Frequency theory: A theory that suggests neurons fire at a rate that matches the frequency of the sound, allowing us to hear pitch.

Gate-control theory: A theory that suggests the spinal cord has a "gate" that can either block or allow pain signals to reach the brain.

Gustation: The sense of taste.

Olfaction: The sense of smell.

Kinesthesis: The sense of body movement and position.

Vestibular sense: The sense of balance and spatial orientation, related to the inner ear.

Sensory interaction: When one sense influences another, like how taste and smell work together.

Embodied cognition: The idea that our thoughts and mental processes are influenced by our physical body and senses.

Unit 2: Cognition

Selective attention: Focusing on one thing while ignoring others around you.

Inattentional blindness: Failing to notice something because you’re not paying attention to it.

Change blindness: Not noticing a change in your environment because your focus is elsewhere.

Perceptual set: A mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on prior experience.

Gestalt: The idea that we perceive objects as whole rather than just a collection of parts.

Figure-ground: The ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its background.

Grouping: The tendency to organize things into groups based on similar characteristics.

Depth perception: The ability to see and judge the distance of objects in three dimensions.

Visual cliff: A laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants.

Binocular cue: A depth cue that requires both eyes, like convergence and retinal disparity.

Convergence: A binocular cue where the eyes move inward to focus on a close object.

Retinal disparity: A binocular cue where each eye sees a slightly different image, helping us judge depth.

Monocular cue: A depth cue that can be perceived with one eye, like size and texture gradient.

Stroboscopic movement: The perception of motion from a series of still images shown rapidly, like in movies.

Phi phenomenon: The illusion of movement when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession.

Autokinetic effect: The illusion that a stationary light is moving in a dark room.

Perceptual constancy: The ability to perceive objects as unchanging, even when the lighting or angle changes.

Color constancy: The ability to perceive colors as the same despite changes in lighting.

Perceptual adaptation: The ability to adjust to new sensory experiences, like when wearing glasses that invert images.

Cognition: The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.

Metacognition: Thinking about and being aware of your own thinking processes.

Concept: A mental category used to group similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept.

Jean Piaget: A psychologist who studied the cognitive development of children.

Schema: A mental framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Creativity: The ability to generate original and valuable ideas.

Convergent thinking: Finding a single, correct solution to a problem.

Divergent thinking: Generating many different possible solutions to a problem.

Robert Sternberg: A psychologist who proposed a theory of intelligence including analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Executive functions: Mental skills that help manage and control thoughts and actions, like planning and problem-solving.

Algorithm: A step-by-step method for solving problems that guarantees a correct solution.

Heuristic: A mental shortcut that helps make decisions or solve problems quickly, but not always accurately.

Insight: A sudden realization or understanding of a solution to a problem.

Wolfgang Köhler: A psychologist who studied problem-solving and insight in animals, especially in chimpanzees.

Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs.

Fixation: The inability to approach a problem from a new perspective.

Mental set: The tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.

Intuition: Understanding something without the need for conscious reasoning, often based on instinct.

Amos Tversky: A psychologist known for his work on decision-making and cognitive biases, often with Daniel Kahneman.

Daniel Kahneman: A psychologist who, with Amos Tversky, studied how biases influence human decision-making.

Representativeness heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how much it resembles a typical case.

Availability heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident in one’s abilities or knowledge than is objectively justified.

Belief perseverance: Clinging to one’s beliefs even after they have been discredited.

Framing: The way an issue or question is presented, influencing how people make decisions.

Nudge: Subtle changes in the environment that influence behavior in predictable ways.

Memory: The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Recall: Retrieving information from memory without external cues.

Recognition: Identifying previously learned information when presented with it.

Relearning: Learning something again after having previously learned and forgotten it.

Hermann Ebbinghaus: A psychologist who studied memory and the forgetting curve.

Encoding: The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage: The process of maintaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into awareness.

Parallel processing: The brain’s ability to process multiple streams of information at the same time.

Richard Atkinson: A psychologist known for the multi-store model of memory.

Richard Shiffrin: A psychologist who collaborated with Richard Atkinson to develop the multi-store model of memory.

Sensory memory: The brief storage of sensory information before it is processed further.

Short-term memory: The limited-capacity memory that holds information for a short period (around 15–30 seconds).

Long-term memory: The relatively permanent storage of information that can hold vast amounts of data for a long time.

Working memory: A system for temporarily storing and manipulating information needed for complex tasks like reasoning and learning.

Central executive: The part of working memory that controls attention and coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological loop: The part of working memory that processes and stores verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial sketchpad: The part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Neurogenesis: The process of creating new neurons, which can play a role in memory formation.

Eric Kandel: A neuroscientist known for his research on the molecular basis of memory.

Long-term potentiation (LTP): The strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, thought to be a mechanism of learning and memory.

Explicit memory: Conscious memories of facts and experiences.

Effortful processing: Encoding that requires conscious effort, like studying for an exam.

Automatic processing: Unconscious encoding of information, like remembering a well-practiced task.

Implicit memory: Unconscious memories, such as how to ride a bike, that influence behavior.

Iconic memory: A brief sensory memory for visual information.

Echoic memory: A brief sensory memory for auditory information.

George A. Miller: A psychologist who found that the average number of objects a person can hold in their short-term memory is 7 ± 2.

Chunking: Organizing information into smaller, more manageable units to improve memory.

Mnemonics: Memory aids, often using vivid imagery or patterns, to enhance memory recall.

Spacing effect: The phenomenon where information is better retained if learning is spread over time.

Testing effect: The improved ability to recall information after being tested on it, compared to simply reviewing it.

Shallow processing: Encoding based on superficial features, like appearance or sound.

Deep processing: Encoding based on the meaning and significance of the information.

Semantic memory: Memory of general facts and knowledge.

Episodic memory: Memory of specific events or experiences.

Hippocampus: The brain area involved in forming new memories.

Memory consolidation: The process by which short-term memories become stable long-term memories.

Flashbulb memory: A vivid and detailed memory of a significant event, often emotionally charged.

Priming: The activation of certain associations in memory, influencing perception or behavior.

Encoding specificity principle: The idea that memory is most effective when the context at encoding and retrieval are similar.

Mood-congruent memory: The tendency to recall memories that match one’s current mood.

Serial position effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items. Interleaving: Mixing different types of information or practice to improve learning.

Anterograde amnesia: The inability to form new memories after a brain injury.

Retrograde amnesia: The inability to recall memories formed before a brain injury.

Proactive interference: When old information interferes with the recall of new information.

Retroactive interference: When new information interferes with the recall of old information.

Repression: The unconscious blocking of unpleasant memories or thoughts.

Reconsolidation: The process of recalling and potentially modifying memories during retrieval.

Elizabeth Loftus: A psychologist known for her work on the misinformation effect and the unreliability of memory.

Misinformation effect: When a person’s memory of an event is altered by incorrect information presented after the event.

Source amnesia: The inability to remember where, when, or how you learned something.

Déjà vu: The feeling that you’ve experienced something before, even if it’s happening for the first time.

Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience