Thinking & Intelligence
Thinking & Intelligence
PBSI 107 Chapter 7
Topics
What is Cognition?
Language
Problem-Solving
What are Intelligence and Creativity?
Measures of Intelligence
The Source of Intelligence
What is Cognition?
Definition of Cognition
Cognition: The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
Involves the processing of information through various components:
Information: The data received from the environment.
Sensations: The raw input from sensory systems.
Emotions: Feelings that influence cognitive processes.
Memories: Stored information that affects current cognition.
Thoughts: The products of cognitive processing.
Behavior: The response resulting from cognitive processes.
Cognition is understood as a filtration and processing activity within the brain where sensations and information are filtered through emotions and memories to create thoughts.
Concepts & Prototypes
Organization of Information
Concepts: Categories of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories. They help to organize information and identify relationships among different aspects of experience.
Complex/abstract vs Concrete: Concepts can be either abstract (complex ideas) or concrete (specific items).
Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept.
Example: Is lasagna considered a “salad” or a “sandwich”? This question emphasizes the role of prototypes in categorization.
Natural & Artificial Concepts
Types of Concepts
Natural Concepts:
Developed through direct or indirect experiences.
Example: Our understanding of snow based on observed characteristics and experiences.
Artificial Concepts:
Defined by a specific set of characteristics or formal definitions.
Example: The properties of geometric shapes such as squares and triangles.
Schemata
Definition of Schema
Schema: A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge or experiences.
When activated, schemata influence assumptions about people, objects, or situations (e.g., expectations of roles such as 'doctor' or 'marriage').
Role Schema: Assumptions about how individuals in certain roles behave.
Example: The expectations associated with the role of a “librarian” and how these expectations can differ across cultures.
Event Schema (Cognitive Script): A set of routines or automatic behaviors related to specific events or situations.
Language
Definition of Language
Language: A system of communication using words and established rules for combining these words to convey information.
Components of Language
Lexicon: The complete set of words in a language.
Grammar: The rules governing the structure of sentences, including morphology and syntax.
Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound (e.g., the sounds “ah” and “eh”).
Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in a language.
Example: “see” contains two phonemes but is also a morpheme because it conveys meaning. In contrast, “-ed” in “walked” is a morpheme that indicates past tense.
Construction of Language
Language is constructed through semantics (meaning derived from words) and syntax (the arrangement of words in sentences).
Language Development
Theories of Language Acquisition
Noam Chomsky: Proposed that the mechanisms for language acquisition are biologically determined and suggested the existence of a “language acquisition device.”
Language develops naturally, even without formal instruction, starting from prenatal stages.
Criticism of behaviorism, asserting a biological basis for language learning.
Critical Period: The optimal time frame for language acquisition, particularly early in life; deprivation during this period can severely hinder language development.
The Case of Genie
Genie was a case study of language deprivation, found at age 13 after living in abusive conditions.
Had no social interactions and could not speak at the time of her discovery.
Although she learned some vocabulary afterwards, she struggled with understanding and applying grammatical rules.
Problem Solving
Strategies for Problem Solving
Three primary approaches to problem-solving include:
Trial and Error: Varying attempts to find a solution without a definitive strategy.
Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure or formula that guarantees a solution.
Heuristic: A general rule of thumb that allows for a quicker solution with less exhaustive exploration of options.
Example heuristics involve starting with the end goal (working-backwards) or breaking down larger tasks into sequential smaller steps.
When Heuristics Are Used
Individuals often rely on heuristics when:
Presented with an overload of information.
They have limited time for decision-making.
The decision is perceived as low-stakes.
They lack sufficient information for an informed decision.
A particular heuristic comes to mind spontaneously as a potential solution.
Pitfalls to Problem Solving
Functional Fixedness
Functional Fixedness: The inability to see an object being used in a manner different from its intended purpose.
Example: Mounting a candle on a wall utilizing only a candle, thumbtacks, and matches could illustrate this fixed mindset.
Mental Sets
Mental Sets: Rigid approaches to problem-solving that become ineffective over time but are difficult to change.
An adage associated with this concept is: "Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results" - Albert Einstein.
Biases in Problem Solving
Types of Biases
Anchoring Bias: Focusing heavily on one piece of information when making decisions.
Confirmation Bias: Preferring information that affirms existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory data.
Hindsight Bias: The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred, commonly referred to as the “I knew it all along” effect.
Representative Bias: Unintentional stereotyping based on perceived categories.
Availability Heuristic: Making judgments based on readily available examples or experiences rather than comprehensive data.
What are Intelligence and Creativity?
Classifying Intelligence
Definitions of intelligence vary significantly and remain debated among scholars.
Charles Spearman: Proposed that intelligence consists of a general factor, known as "g", emphasizing commonalities across different intellectual tasks.
Raymond Cattell: Distinguished two types of intelligence:
Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge acquired and the ability to retrieve it, resembling accumulated knowledge (knowing "WHAT").
Fluid Intelligence: The capacity to see relationships and solve novel problems, akin to the application of knowledge (knowing "HOW").
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg's Theory
Identifies three types of intelligence:
Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving skills applicable in academics and computation.
Creative Intelligence: The ability to engage in imaginative, innovative problem-solving.
Practical Intelligence: Common sense and street smarts applied to real-world situations.
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Howard Gardner's Theory
Proposed that individuals possess at least eight distinct types of intelligence:
Linguistic Intelligence
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Spatial Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Naturalist Intelligence
Emotional intelligence, which encompasses understanding oneself and others emotionally alongside the ability to manage social relationships and responses in culturally appropriate manners, is often included in this framework.
Spatial Intelligence
Example Question
Determine which of the two images is a rotation of the original image, illustrating spatial reasoning abilities.