AP World History – Chapters 18 & 19 Study Guide

Motives Behind European Exploration and Expansion (1450–1750)

• Main Motives:

  • Economic: Search for new trade routes and resources.

  • Political: Nationalism and competition among European powers.

  • Religious: Spread of Christianity and countering Islam.

Major Colonial Empires Established

• Countries and their Empires:

  • Portugal: First to explore the coasts of Africa and establish trading post empires.

  • Spain: Expanded rapidly into the Americas, establishing vast territories.

  • England: Established colonies along the eastern coast of North America.

  • France: Controlled territories in North America and the Caribbean.

Role of Portugal in Early Exploration and Trade Routes

• Led early voyages, pioneered African coastal explorations.

• Established trade routes to India and Brazil.

• Developed technologies such as the caravel and navigational tools like the compass.

Spain's Empire in the Americas

• Methods of Establishment:

  • Conquistadors conquered large indigenous empires (e.g., Aztecs, Incas).

  • Military strength and alliances with local populations.

Encomienda and Hacienda Systems

• Encomienda System:

  • A system that granted Spanish settlers rights to forced labor from indigenous peoples in return for protection and Christian conversion.

  • Led to significant exploitation and decline of indigenous populations.

• Hacienda System:

  • Large estates that produced agricultural goods using indigenous and enslaved labor.

  • Facilitated the land's transition into cash crops like sugar and tobacco.

Impact of European Colonization on Indigenous Populations

• Decline in population due to diseases introduced by Europeans (e.g., smallpox).

• Displacement and cultural disruption.

• Forced labor and exploitation within encomienda and hacienda systems.

Economic System Resulting from Colonization and Trade

• Mercantilism:

  • Economic theory focused on accumulating wealth through trade, establishing colonies, and maintaining a favorable balance of trade.

  • Shaped colonial policies, leading to monopolies on trade (e.g., Spain's control over silver).

Atlantic Slave Trade and European Wealth

• Contributed to massive profits from slave labor in plantations, which fueled the economies of European countries.

• Key cash crops included sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

Differences Between Colonial Systems

• Spanish: Heavy reliance on forced labor and heavy military presence.

• Portuguese: Focus on trade and resource extraction; assimilation of indigenous culture.

• French: Collaborated with indigenous people, focusing on fur trade.

• English: Settlement colonies with large numbers of European immigrants, focusing on agriculture.

Impact of Silver Mining in Spanish America

• Led to significant influx of silver into Europe, altering global trade dynamics.

• Key locations include Potosí and Zacatecas, which became central to Spain’s wealth.

Columbian Exchange

• Definition: The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and culture between the New and Old Worlds post-1492.

• Transformative Effects: Introduction of new crops to both continents (potatoes and maize to Europe; horses and cattle to the Americas).

Role of Catholic Missionaries

• Worked to convert indigenous populations to Christianity.

• Provided education and social services, often acting as intermediaries between colonizers and natives.

Strengthening of Empires by Rulers

• King Philip II of Spain: Consolidated power through wealth from Spanish colonies, leading to the Golden Age of Spain.

• Louis XIV of France: Expanded French influence through centralized power, building an extensive colonial empire.

Advancements in Maritime Technology

• Development of the caravel: A small, fast ship that allowed for oceanic navigation.

• Advances such as the compass improved navigation accuracy and efficiency.

Treaty of Tordesillas

• Purpose: Aimed to resolve conflicts between Spain and Portugal over newly discovered lands.

• Significance: Divided the world into Spanish and Portuguese spheres of influence.

Transatlantic Slave Trade Causes

• Utilization of slave labor for cash crop production in the Americas.

• European demand for labor in colonies.

Participation of African Societies in Slave Trade

• Some African leaders and kingdoms engaged in capturing and selling rivals or enemies as slaves to European traders.

• Created complex networks of trade and alliances.

Effects of Slave Trade on African Economies and Populations

• Created economic dependency on the slave trade, disrupted social structures.

• Significant population declines in some regions due to capture and loss.

The Middle Passage

• Definition: The journey across the Atlantic Ocean taken by slave ships from West Africa to the Americas.

• Conditions: Extremely inhumane; high mortality rates due to disease, starvation, and abuse.

Cash Crops and Enslaved Labor

• Major cash crops included sugar, tobacco, cotton, and later rice in different colonies.

• Reliance on enslaved labor created economic foundations for colonies.

Differences in Slavery Across Regions

• British North America: Greater emphasis on plantation agriculture with less integration into colonial society.

• Caribbean: High mortality rates leading to importation of new slaves frequently.

• Brazil: Large sugar plantations; African slaves brought diverse cultural influences.

Maroon Communities

• Definition: Groups of escaped enslaved people who formed their own communities.

• Forms of Resistance: Organized revolts and preserved African cultural practices.

Key Figures in Abolition Movements

• Many abolitionists, including former enslaved people, worked towards ending slavery through activism and literature.

Impact of Abolition of British Slavery (1833)

• Shifted economic structures; led to labor reforms and new social systems post-abolition.

Culture and Religion Preservation Among Enslaved Africans

• Enslaved Africans maintained cultural practices and religious beliefs despite oppressive conditions.

Triangular Trade

• Definition: A trade network that involved the exchange of goods, slaves, and raw materials between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

• Connected economies and created dependencies between regions.

Role of European Weapons in African Warfare

• Increased competition among African states for resources and trading power, often leading to conflicts influenced by European arms.

Replacement of Slavery Post-Abolition

• New labor systems emerged, such as sharecropping and wage labor, but often continued exploitation persisted.

Bartolome de Las Casas

• Role: Spanish missionary and historian who advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples and opposed their mistreatment.

Prince Henry the Navigator

• Significance: Key figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire; promoted the development of maritime exploration and trade.

Olaudah Equiano

• Importance of Autobiography: Provided firsthand accounts of the slave experience, fueling abolitionist efforts in Britain.

Conquistadors

• Definition: Spanish explorers and warriors who conquered significant parts of the Americas.

• Their impact included extensive demographic and cultural changes in the indigenous populations.

Asante Kingdom and the Slave Trade

• A prominent kingdom in West Africa that became heavily involved in the slave trade, both as a supplier and participant.

Effects of the Columbian Exchange on Europe and the Americas

• Exchange of crops and animals revolutionized diets and agriculture globally, enhancing populations and economies.

Definition of the Atlantic System

• A network of trade routes that linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas, focusing on the slave trade, commodities, and cultural exchange.

Sugar Plantations and Expansion of Slavery

• Sugar became the main cash crop driving the transatlantic slave trade; plantations required heavy labor forces leading to increased demand for enslaved labor.

Syncretism in African Diaspora Religions

• Definition: The blending of different religious traditions, notably seen in Vodun and Santería among African-descended populations.

• Served as a means of cultural preservation and adaptation in the Americas.

European Rivalry in Colonization

• Rivalries stemmed from the desire to acquire more land, resources, and trade routes, leading to conflicts such as the Seven Years' War.

Role of Joint-Stock Companies

• Example: The Dutch East India Company facilitated trade and colonization, allowing for shared investments and reduced individual risk in empire-building.

Jesuits in the Americas and Asia

• Religious order focused on education and missionary work, significantly influencing local cultures and societies while promoting Catholicism.