Period 4: 1800-1848

Jeffersonian Republicanism

Thomas Jefferson

• Democrat-Republican

  • Small government

  • Agriculture economy (U.S.)

  • Wanted to cut government budget (reduced federal spending

  • Wanted to reduce national debt

Early 1800’s: Slavery

• 1776: Legal in all 13 states

  • 1777: Vermont Republic abolishes slavery (independent at the time).

• 1807: Atlantic slave trade abolished

  • Slavery within the U.S. still continued.

• North: More freed blacks

• South: Higher demands for slavery (plantations)

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

• Ruled by France

  • Valuable for its sugar

• Only successful slave rebellion where the area became ruled by former slaves

• Inspired blacks (free & enslaved) in the western hemisphere

  • Spread abolition movements

• Terrified slave owners in the U.S.

First Barbary War (1801-1805)

• Barbary states (northern Africa): Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis

  • Captured American ships in the Mediterranean Sea & held the crew for ransom

• Led to creation of the 1st American navy

• George Washington & John Adams: Paid the ransom

• Thomas Jefferson: Refused to pay the ransom

  • Showed the Americans could fight in a foreign war

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

• France owned land west of the Mississippi River

  • Used to provide Haiti with resources (lumber)

• Napoleon was fighting wars in Europe.

  • Needed money

  • Loss of Haiti = gave up hope of an empire in the western hemisphere

    • Didn’t deem Louisiana valuable

• Jefferson (U.S.) bought all of Louisiana from Napoleon for $15 million.

  • Big government move

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

• Occurred between Adams’s leaving office & Jefferson’s taking over

• Established Supreme Court’s right of judicial review

  • Power to strike down a law as unconstitutional

  • (Chief Justice John Marshall)

Lewis & Clark Expeditions (1804-1806)

• Meriwether Lewis & William Clark

  • U.S. army generals

• Mississippi River → Pacific Ocean

• Traveled up the Missouri River, then over land near the Rocky Mountain

• Received help from Sacagawea

  

Embargo Act (1807)

• Napoleonic Wars in Europe → Britain, France, & Spain refused to respect America’s neutrality.

  • British attacked American ships in the Atlantic Ocean.

    • 1807: USS Chesapeake attacked.

  • Impressed Americans into British navy

• Jefferson wanted to avoid war.

• Passed the Embargo Act

  • Closed all American ports to foreign trade

    • Devastated American economy; it helped British economy (reduced internal trade competition)

  • Resorted to smuggling

    • Jefferson expanded power to stop smuggling → called a tyrant

  • Angered Federalists

    • Closed ports

      • Federalists: Commercial

      • Democratic-Republicans: Agricultural

    • Expanded government control (similar to British before the Revolution)

Early Republic: War of 1812

Early 1800’s: Americans & Native Americans

• Disrespected property rights & soveriengty

• Viewed as savages

• Excluded from Treaty of Paris

• Lots of land taken from them

• Did not unit until Pontiac’s War (1763, Period 3)

Tecumseh’s Confederacy

• Tenskatawa: Prophet of the Shawnee Tribe

  • Natives should unit & resist Americans

  • Revitalization of Native American culture

• Tenskatawa & Tecumseh (brother) united native tribes between Appalachians & Mississippi River.

Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)

• Tecumseh’s Confederacy: HQ in Prophetstown, Indiana Territory

• William Henry Harrison (governor of Indiana Territory) marched 1,000 men to Prophetstown.

  • Defeated Confederacy (would never fully recover afterwards)

    • Tecumseh was away recruiting men, Tenskatawa wasn’t a warrior

  • Burned Prophetstown

• British armed Tecumseh → angered Americans

Continued Conflicts with Britain

• Continued impressment of American soldiers into British navy

• British in Canada armed natives → kill Americans & fight wars

• British did not leave their forts in the west after the Revolution

End of the Embargo Act

• Ended during James Madison’s presidency

  • Initially a Federalist, became a Democratic-Republican

• Continued impressment of American sailors…

Threat of War with the British

• Many war hawks wanted to go to war with Britain.

  • Stop British impressment of Americans & arming of natives

  • Henry Clay & John C. Calhoun

• James Madison convinced by Congress to declare war.

War of 1812 (Mr. Madison’s War)

On the Atlantic Ocean (1812-1813)

• British navy busy fighting France for the first part

• HMS Shannon attacked USS Chesapeake

  • Wounded Captain James Lawrence

  • “Tell the men to fire faster! Don’t give up the ship!”

North; near the Canadian border & on the Great Lakes (1813-1814)

• Ontario: Tecumseh joins Canadians to fight Americans

  • Dies at the Battle of the Thames

  • Canadian allies fled/surrendered, he stayed → ended Confederacy

South (1815)

• New Orleans

Burning of Washington D.C.

• Defeated Napoleon; Britain sent more soldiers to U.S.

• British navy blockaded American ports.

• Gained access to Washignton D.C. & burned it

Star-Spangled Banner

• British went to Baltimore, Maryland after burning Washington D.C.

• Battle at Fort McHenry

• Francis Scott Key

Treaty of Ghent

• Diplomats from U.S. & Britain met in Ghent, Netherlands

• No victor; agreed to return relations to the way they were before the war

  • James Madison was unpopular with the Federalists

• News of this treaty took a long time to travel to Americans

Battle of New Orleans

• 18 days after the Treaty of Ghent was signed

  • Didn’t know the treaty had occurred already

• British attacked New Orleans

  • 8,000 British vs. 5,600 Americans

  • Americans won

    • Madison gained popularity

• People naturally connected the Battle of New Orleans with the ending of the war.

  • Andrew Jackson (leader & hero)

Hartford Convention

• Federalists (especially in New England) didn’t agree with the War of 1812; they wanted to trade with Britain.

• Met in Hartford, Connecticut

  • Created a list of demands

    • Abolish 3/5 rule, limit presidential terms, 2/3 majority in Congress to declare wars, etc.

• Rumors of secession from union

• List of demands reached Washington D.C. by the end of the war

  • Americans were patriotic & proud; made Federalists look bad

• Ended the Federalist Party

  • Only Democratic-Republicans for the next decade

American System

• Introduced by Henry Clay

• Economic plan to strengthen & unify the country

  • Based on Hamilton’s “American School” ideas

• Protective tariffs to promote American industry

• 2nd National Bank (1816) to foster commerce

  • Hamilton’s 1st National Bank (1791-1811) expired under James Madison, who didn’t renew it. After the War of 1812, Madison agreed to open up the 2nd National Bank, which would be closed during Andrew Jackson’s presidency. The next national bank is the Federal Reserve (1913).

• Federal subsidies for internal improvements (roads, canals, etc.)

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

• James Monroe was president after Madison.

• Supported independence movements in Latin America

  • Advantage in trade over newly-formed countries

• Presented a policy that opposed European colonialism in the western hemisphere

Era of Good Feelings

• Ending of the War of 1812 brought the U.S. together

• Only Democratic-Republican party

  • (Still division within the party)

Market Revolution

Industrial Revolution (1760’s-1840)

• Started in Manchester, England

• Many technological innovations were of British origin

• Increased industrialization → Market Revolution

Early 1800’s: Economic Development

• Producing goods for sale rather than consumption

• Improvements in transportation → physically united country & easy trade

• Improved technology

• Many conflicts

  • Child labor, class conflicts, immigration, increased slavery, growing cities, patriarchal changes

Trade

Before the War of 1812

• Increased exports (during early republic)

• Poor infrastructure, difficult transportation

• Exporting goods over the Atlantic Ocean was easier than across states

• War of 1812 = turning point

  • United, patriotic U.S.

  • Federalist Party lost power, but the Democratic-Republicans enacted ideas that sounded a lot like the Federalist Party.

After the War of 1812

• New roads, canals, railroads

• State & federal government funded infrastructure projects.

  • Britain also invested/provided capital.

New Economic System

• Cash economy

  • More people started working for cash

  • Counterfeit money, corrupt dealers

• Panic of 1819: Land speculation

• Panic of 1837: Land/slave speculation

• Panic of 1857: Railroad bond speculation

Transportation Revolution

• 1807: 1st commercial steamboat service

  • Allowed people to move upstream & downstream on rivers

  • Filled the Mississippi & Ohio River

• 1825: Erie Canal

  • Canal building boom

  • Linked Great Lakes to Hudson River

  • Made NYC the biggest city

• 1827: 1st long distance railroad line (from Maryland)

  • (Previously only short lines using horse-drawn cars)

  • More lines built throughout cities

  • Panic of 1837 caused states to fund less projects

Communication Revolution

• (Previously took weeks for messages to be delivered)

• Telegraphs allowed quick communication.

• 1843: Samuel morse persuaded Congress to fund a 40-mile telegraph line from Washington D.C. to Baltimore.

Other Technologies

• Cash economy allowed people to use credit to buy tools for production.

  • Farmers used credit to buy tools.

• Cyrus McCormick Reaper: Harvested crops

• John Deere Steel-Bladed plow: Turned unbroken land fertile

• 1815-1850: Explosion of patents

Growth of Cities

• Largest: NY because of its location & Erie Canal

• Boston & Chicago: Big cities

• St. Louis, Cincinnati: Centers of trade

• New England cities lost advantage; more people moved west.

Slavery

• Fueled the Market Revolution

• More and more northern states above the Mason-Dixon Line abolished slavery.

  • Gradual emancipation

• Textile industry in the north

  • Free labor

  • Increased the demand for slavery; depended on cotton from south

• Some cities int he north allowed free blacks to vote, own property, trial by jury, start a business, etc.

  

Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin (1793)

• Decreased slavery in north, increased slavery in south

  • Increasing demand for cotton

• Tobacco was too harsh on the soil; unsustainable, moved to upper south.

  • Replaced by cotton

• Cotton gin increased the demand for slaves.

  • Easier picking, but increased demand for cotton to be picked

Lowell Mill Towns (1821)

• North was more industrial, south was more agricultural

• Francis Cabot Lowell (from Manchester) brought technological, organizational, & trade ideas back to the U.S.

• Started planned mill town of Lowell

  • Beginning of the modern American factory

  • Manufacturing boom

  • 75% women workers

Changes in Industry

• Small shops taken over by mass production factories

• Apprentice to master Employer to employee

  • No more indentured servitude

• Growing gap between rich & poor

• Division between the north & south

  • North: Thought they were better because of their free labor ideology

  • South: Thought slaves were treated better than laborers in the north

Changes in Gender Roles & Family Life

• Marriage:

  • Love (rather than necessity)

  • Rare divorce

  • Married couples = one unit represented by husband

• Women expected to work in the house, but poorer women & their children worked in factories.

• Richer families: Wife works at home, children continues school

• Children chose their own career paths.

  • (Previously followed their father)

Immigration

• Increased immigration

  • Irish, German, Jews

    • Irish: Escaping anti-Catholic attacks (1820-1840), Potato Famine (1840’s-1850’s), went to eastern costal cities

    • German: Escaping failed revolutions, wanted economic stability, wnet to rural areas

Nativism

• Feared immigrants taking jobs from America

• Anti-Catholic, Anti-German, antisemitism movements

• American Party (Nativist Party)

  • Anti-immigration

  • Know Nothing Party

Democracy in America

New States

• 1819: 19 states (+ territories)

  • To become a state: Large enough population, created stated government & Constitution, & when Congress passes joint resolution

Growing Divide between North & South

• Sectionalism: North, West, South are developing separately

  • Leads to the Civil War

• Power struggle

  • South: 3/5 Compromise in their favor, 4/5 of the first Presidents were from Virginia

  • North: Gaining power; more immigrants found jobs in the north

Missouri Compromise (1820)

• 1819: Missouri applied for statehood.

  • Debate over whether it’d join as a free state or a slave state; morality & power

• Missouri Compromise proposed by Senator Jesse Thomas (Illinois).

  • Supported by Henry Clay (the “Great Compromiser)

    • Missouri = slave state

    • Maine (previously part of Massachusetts) = free state

  • Everything west of the Mississippi River divided along 36°30’ line

    • New states in north = free, new state in south = slave

  • Temporarily solved the growing tension between the north & south

Andrew Jackson (“Old Hickory”)

• Son of 2 Irish immigrants

• Joined militia at 13 (during Revolution); hated the British

• Uneducated

• Self-taught lawyer

• Fought in duels (ex. Andrew Jackson Duel)

  • Killed Charles Dickinson

• Worked in Congress

  • House of Representatives & Senate

• General (Creek Wars, Battle of New Orleans)

• 7th President of the U.S.

  • (Owned slaves, signed the Indian Removal Act, adopted 2 native American children)

Invasion of Spanish Florida (1818)

• Seminoles (previous Creeks) helped British in the War of 1812, continued to attack Americans after.

  • Set slaves in the U.S. free

• 1818: Andrew Jackson invaded Spanish Florida, attacked Negro Fort, killed 200 formerly enslaved blacks.

  • Angered Monroe

  • J.Q. Adams used this opportunity to buy Florida.

• Adams-Onis Treaty (1819): Spain ceded Florida to the U.S.

Election of 1824

• Only Democratic-Republican Party

• J.Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, William Crawford

  • None won majority of electoral votes

“Corrupt Bargain”

• Henry Clay (Speaker of the House) dropped out of the election.

  • Convinced House of Representatives to vote for J.Q. Adams

  • J.Q. Adams made Clay his Secretary of State

• Andrew Jackson: Called it the “Corrupt Bargain”

  • Spent the next 4 years preparing to defeat Adams

• (J.Q. Adams had an unsuccessful presidency, labelled as corrupt, fought with Congress.)

Election of 1828 (Andrew Jackson)

• Jackson’s campaign: Accused J.Q. Adams of being corrupt, an elitist, offering the Russian Czar a prostitute

• J.Q. Adams’s campaign: Accused Jackson of being a murderer, gambler, brawler, marrying a married woman

  • Rachel Jackson: Wife of Andrew, didn’t know she wasn’t officially divorced with her abusive ex-husband

    • Andrew Jackson never forgave those who insulted her.

Age of Jackson

• Represented the common man

• Jacksonian Democracy: More white makes of 21 could vote

• Split the Democratic-Republicans

  • Democratic-Republicans (Democrats)

  • National Republicans (Whigs)

    • Started by Henry Clay

    • Anti-Jackson Party

• Jackass → symbol of Democratic Party

  

Age of Jackson

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

• Created under J.Q. Adams, enacted under Andrew Jackson

  • Democrats disliked tariffs.

• Helped north, hurt south

  • Raised prices on foreign goods → manufactured goods bought from north rather than Europe

  • Europe passed reciprocal tariffs (Didn’t buy raw materials from south)

• Vice President John C. Calhoun (from South Carolina) argued for nullification of unconstitutional federal laws.

  • Replaced by Martin van Buren after Jackson’s reelection

  • Returned to South Carolina as Senator & declared Tariffs of 1828 & 1832 void in S.C.

Nullification Crisis

• South Carolina argued states could nullify federal laws if they were unconstitutional; States’ Rights.

• Threatened to secede

Force Bill

• Enraged, (privately) threatened to hang Calhoun

• Passed Force Bill

  • Sent military to S.C. to enforce compliance

• Compromise (help from Henry Clay)

  • Lowered tariffs

  • Stopped nullification

    • S.C. nullified the Force Bill though

Eaton Affair

• Women: Protector of the nation’s value

• John Henry Eaton (Jackson’s Secretary of War) married Margaret O’Neale.

  • Accused of having an affair before marriage

  • O’Neale previously married to Navy officer

• Led to Margaret Eaton being ostracized & 4 of Jackson’s cabinet members resigning

Bank War

• 1791-1811: 1st National Bank

• 1816-1836: 2nd National Bank

  • Andrew Jackson hated the National Bank.

    • Gave federal government too much power

    • Unconstitutional, helped elites more than common

    • Blamed for Panic of 1819

      • Irresponsible lending, hoarding of gold

    • Accusations of corruption

• 1832: Jackson vetoed bill to charter 2nd National Bank

  • Moved money from S.B.U.S. into selected State Banks; “Pet Banks.”

  • Partly blamed for the Panic of 1837

King Andrew the First

• Accused him of redistributing wealth to lazy people, putting rich against poor, being a tyrant

  

Economic Boom (1834-1836)

• Helped Martin van Buren (Democrat) get elected

• Influenced by Market Revolution developments

• Cotton boom

• Foreign & domestic credit available, foreign investment in U.S.

• Influx of specie

  

Panic of 1837

Causes

• Swale of western lands promoted speculation & poorly regulated lending practices

  • Borrowed too much money to buy overvalued land; couldn’t pay back

  • No National Bank → no regulation

• Specie Circular (1836): Citizens must buy land with gold/silver.

  • Passed to reduce careless speculation, but drained specie from banks

  • No credit

    • Made it hard for banks to lend; no specie

    • Britain restricted lending.

• (State banks) Printed too much money

• EU bought less American cotton due to economic difficulties; hurt the south

• Bad wheat harvest

Bubble Burst

• Federal land sales plummeted

  • $10 per acre → $3 per acre

• Panic

  • May 4: Everyone wanted to redeem their gold/silver

  • May 10: NY banks stopped accepting banknotes for gold/silver

• Led to economic depression (1839-1843

Results

• Banks collapsed, businesses failed, prices declined, bread riots, unemployment

• Blamed Jackson & Buren

  • Jackson: Bank War & Species Circular

  • Buren: Because he just happened to be President at the time

• Led to Great Depression

• Started today’s credit ranking system

Anti-Masonic Party

• Formed to destroy Freemasons

  • Freemasons: Trade organization for stonemasons, started in 1300’s

    • Evolved into a secret society claiming adherence to enlightenment ideals

    • Thought to be controlling the U.S. government

• Many Anti-Masonic Party members would join the Whig Party.

Know Nothing (Anti-Immigration) Party

• American Party

• Feared immigrants would take their jobs

• Feared conflicts (like Protestants vs. Catholics in Europe)

• Would say they “knew nothing” when asked about their party

• Many Know Nothing Party members would join the Whig Party.

Rise of the Whigs

• Anti-Jackson Party

  • Began when Jackson defeated Henry Clay (Election of 1832)

  • National Republicans, Anti-Masonic Party, Know Nothing Party, disaffected Democrats

• 1836: Martin van Buren defeats 5 Whig candidates (presidency).

• Whigs gained support after the Panic of 1837.

Two-Party System

William Henry Harrison

• 1st Whig President

  • Hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe.& defeat of Tecumseh’s Confederacy

  • From the north

• VP: John Tyler (from the south)

• Campaign slogan: Tippecanoe & Tyler Too

• Died 30 days into presidency

  • John Tyler would become President

    • Led more like a Jacksonian Democrat

    • Ostracized by Whig Party; all cabinet members resigned

Race & Jacksonian Democracy

• Jackson: Allowed more common whites to vote

• New laws in north limited blacks (who could vote before) from voting

  • 1830’s: 400,000 free blacks in the north

  • Discrimination still existed.

Denmark Vesey Rebellion (1822)

• Denmark Vesey = “Telemaque”

  • Grew up as a slave in the Caribbeans (St. Thomas)

  • Sent to S.C. & won the lottery → bought his freedom

• Started a business & founded African Methodist Episcopal Church

• 1822: Accused of plotting a slave revolt

  • Encouraged slaves to kill owners & escape to Haiti

  • Tried & executed with 35 of his followers

Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831)

• Virginia: Nat Turner & rebels killed 55-65 whites

  • 56 slaves accused of participating, many executed/punished.

• Turner hid for 2 months before being discovered.

Jim Crow

• Thomas Dartmouth Rice: Entertainer

  • Played a character known as Jim Crow, an enslaved man

• (After the Civil War, laws segregating blacks & whites = Jim Crow Laws.)

Religion & Reform

Early 1800’s: Change

• Economic: Industrial Revolution, Market Revolution, 1st & 2nd National Banks, Panics

• Political: Almost all white males being able to vote by 1830’s

• Social: Class tensions, gap between rich & poor

• Demographic: Arrival of immigrants

• Territorial: Louisiana Purchase, settlers moving west

2nd Great Awakening (1790’s-1840’s)

• Awakened religious zeal

• Protestant revivalist preachers (horseback) went from town to town.

• Religious revivals/camp meetings

• Spiritual egalitarianism

  • Gave African Americans hope

• Began in Kentucky/Tennessee, but revivalist meetings took place in NY

  

• 1st Great Awakening: Methodism (originated from Anglicanism)

• After the American Revolution: Episcopalian Church

• Jamestown settlers: Anglican

• Puritans in New England: Calvinists

• Congregationalism & Puritanism

• 2nd Great Awakening: Methodists & Baptists expanded the most

Methodists

• Started during the 1st Great Awakening

  • Salvation available for everyone

• John Wesley & George Whitfield

• Most successful during 2nd Great Awakening

• Circuit riders to spread message to western frontier

• Blacks founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church.

Baptists

• Roger William (RI) opened 1st Baptist Church (1638).

  • Rhode Island more tolerant than Massachusetts.

• Increased during 2nd Great Awakening

• Current largest Protestant denomination

Mormons (Church of Latter-day Saints)

• Joseph Smith visited by angels: Guided him to golden plates where there was a message written in reformed Egyptian text.

  • Recorded text into the Book of Mormon

  • Received message from God/Jesus not to join existing churches

• Missionaries sent throughout U.S., Britain, Ireland

• Not accepted by Protestants

Unitarians

• Relate to Protestant Reformation (1500’s)

• More prominent during 2nd Great Awakening

• Jesus = savior, not a deity

• 1836: Formed the Transcendental Club

Transcendentalism (1830’s-1850’s)

• Came from Unitarian Church

• Philosophical, spiritual, artistic expression, literary movement

  • Believed in personal knowledge of God

  • Spiritual insight

• Challenged Protestant orthodoxy; questioned God

• Criticized conformity

• Questioned government’s relationship to religion

• Individualism, self-sufficiency, oneness with nature

Henry David Thoreau

• Transcendentalist & abolitionist

• Nonviolent action; civil disobedience

  • Citizens shouldn’t recognize a government that passes unjust laws.

• Simple living

Temperance Movement

• Alcohol: Threat to society

  • Abusive, drunk husbands; women were active in this movement.

• Tension between classes

  • Ex. Irish workers drank to escape reality (trauma from famine, etc.).

• 1826: American Temperance Society

• 1840’s: Consumption of alcohol half of what it was in 1820’s

• (Alcohol sales banned from 1920-1933.)

Anti-Slavery & Abolitionism

• Originally argued for gradual emancipation

• Mid-1800’s: Immediate emancipation, no expatriation

• Hundreds of anti-slavery societies

• Anti-slavery pamphlets

• 1830’s: Rapid growth of anti-slavery movement

• 1840’s: Shift from reform to resistance

• 1850’s: More pronounced anti-slavery

  • Abolitionist still minority & attacked

Frederick Douglass

• Escaped slavery

• National leader of abolitionist movement

• Supported other movements (Women’s Rights Movements, etc.)

Women’s Rights Movement

• More voice during 2nd Great Awakening

  • Leadership positions during reform movements

• Prominent in Temperance & Abolitionist Movement

• Still restricted (property rights, initiate divorces, wills, contracts, vote, etc.)

Seneca Falls Convention

• 1840: Women not given a seat in the World Anti-Slavery Convention (London)

• Lucretia Mott & Elizabeth Cady Stanton returned to U.S., organized the Seneca Falls Convention.

  • Fought for social, civil, religious rights of women

  • Fought for right to vote

    • Started the Suffrage Movement

• Declaration of Sentiments (Stanton)

Indian Removal Act & the Trail of Tears (1836-1838)

• 1832: Worcester v. Georgia = foundation of tribal soveriegnty

• Signed by Andrew Jackson (1830), enforced by Martin van Buren

• Native Americans (S.E.) removed to the west.

  • Trail of Tears: 46,000 natives forcibly moved

  • Religious communities/American missionaries in the U.S. fought against this.

Cotton Revolution

Tobacco

• Saved Jamestown (1600’s)

  • John Rolfe

• Main commodity in the south

  • Treated the land poorly; farmers had to move west

Cotton

• Treated land better than tobacco

• Grew relatively quickly on widely available land

  • Increase cotton market, decrease tobacco market

Cotton Gin (1793)

• Eli Whitney

• Separated cotton fibers from seeds; improved cotton production

• More cotton needed to be picked from fields (to sort); increased slave demand

Importance

• 1700’s: Cotton grown in Caribbean

• 1785: Southern export of cotton to Europe

• Early 1800’s: Demand for cotton on the coast of S.C., Georgia, Florida

• South grows quickly in international prominence & becomes wealthy.

Petit Gulf Cotton/Gossypium Barbadense (1820)

• Strain of cotton

• Slid through cotton gin more smoothly

• More usable

• Discovered just before enforcement of Indian Removal Act; more land for cotton!

Cotton Boom

• Money flowed into South (Petit Gulf Cotton + available land).

  • Became main crop

• 1793: 5 million pounds of cotton

• 1860: 2 billion pounds of cotton

Cotton vs. Slavery

• 1808: International Slave Trade abolished

  • Children of slaves born into slavery

  • Domestic slave trade increased

The Southern City

• Early 1800’s: International trade in north (NY, Boston, Philadelphia, *Baltimore)

  • U.S. imports > exports until cotton

• 1830’s-1850’s: Growth of southern cities

  • More trading ports

• Steamships: River became 2-way roads

  • Cotton, tobacco, sugar, wheat sent from rural areas → port cities → international market.

Southern Urban Class System

1. Landowning elite

   • Controlled politics & money

2. Middle class

   • Sailors, merchants, craftsmen, traders, store owners, etc.

3. Working poor

   • Subsistence farmers

   • Unskilled labor working for elite

Slave Culture

• 1600’s-1700s: Married within same ethnic group

  • Maintained cultural traditions into 1800’s

• Marriages (usually illegal) threatened by separation.

• Women worked as hard as men.

  • Field labor, domestic work

  • Sexually abused

• Created religion: Protestantism/Christianity + African religions

Religion in the South

• 2nd Great Awakening: Methodists, Baptists, Prebysterians

  • Some churches supported abolition of slavery.

• Preachers attempt to convert natives.

  • Some learned native languages to convert them.

  • Some forced natives to learn English to study the Bible.

• Anti-literacy laws made it difficult for Protestant blacks to read the Bible.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831)

• Virginia

• Led rebellion with 55 men; killed 57 whites

• White terror

  • Rebels/uninvolved slaves were executed.

  • Strict laws limiting blacks followed.

  • South would continuously fear slave rebellions up until the Civil War.

Honor in the South

• Men: Masculine honor, sometimes fought/dueled

• Women: Sexual purity, virtuous, cult of domesticity

Manifest Destiny

Manifest Destiny

• Long held belief; term coined in 1845 by John L. O’Sullivan

• American settlers destined to reach the Pacific Ocean.

  • & expand into Caribbean

• Divine call to spread democracy t the west

• U.S. territorial expansion, devastation of native culture

• Democrats believed in Manifest Destiny (Whigs/later Republicans didn’t).

Young America Movement (1845)

• Free trade, social reform, American exceptionalism, territorial expansion, supported republican movements abroad

Western Migration

• After War of 1812: Settlers moving to Great Lakes regions

  • Missouri Crisis (1820): 1st major confrontation with moving west

• Expansion west of Missouri was difficult in the early to mid-1800’s.

  • Infertile farmland, Rocky Mountains, natives

Conflicts with Native Americans (Territorial Expansion)

Indian Removal Act & Trail of Tears

Seminole Wars (1816-1858)

• 3 wars, U.S. vs. Seminoles

• 1st Seminole War (1817-1818)

  • Seminoles in Florida attacked Americans & freed slaves.

  • Adams-Onis Treaty: Cession of Florida to U.S.

  • Migration into Florida

• 2nd Seminole War (1835-1842)

  • U.S. forced Seminoles to leave S.E.

  • Fought back (with the help of blacks)

• 3rd Seminole War (1855-1858)

  • Another attempt to stop American encroachment

Blackhawk War (1832)

• Sauks, Meskwakis, Kickapoos (Illinois area) attempted to reclaim land.

• Conflict occurred → local tribes forced to move to Kansas area

• Continuity: Native Americans continued to be moved farther west.

Comanche

• 1700’s: Most powerful tribe in the S.W., mastered use of horses

• 1821: Mexico (independent from Spain) claimed land controlled by Comache

  • Comache = powerful, would not leave

• 1830’s: Launched attacks on Mexico

  • Joined forces with Kiowa, Apache, Navajo

• 1840’s: Country of Comancheria (peak)

  • Traded with Republic of Texas (independent from Mexico), raids in Mexico

Cynthia Ann Parker (Naduah)

• Kidnapped & raised by Comanche at 10 years old

• Comanche traditions, husband, kids

• “Rescued” 24 years later; refused to adjust to American ways & starved

Mexican War of Independence (1808-1821)

• Spanish had controlled large portions of the New World since the 1500’s.

  • Early 1800’s: Had control of Mexico & S.W. of U.S.

• 1821: Mexico defeated Spanish, became an independent country.

Mexico Texas

• Wanted a buffer zone between Mexico & Comanche Nation

  • Attract settlers to create that buffer

  • American settlers + slaves came

    • Too many; conflict arose between Mexicans & former Americans

      • Attempted to stop conflict

• Tried to stop massive immigration

  • Outlawed slavery, required immigrants to convert to Catholicism, new tax laws

    • These were ignored by the American immigrants.

Texas Revolution (1835-1836)

• 1834: Antonio de López de Santa Anna became president of Mexico.

  • Dictator

  • Repudiated Mexican Constitution of 1824

• American settlers in Mexico Texas revolted against the Mexico government.

• Texians (Texian Americans) declared independence.

• Battle of the Alamo & Goliad Massacre: Hundreds of dead Texians

• Battle of San Jacinto:

  • Decisive battle for the Texians; 18 minutes

  • Santa Anna captured & forced to sign Treaty of Velasco

    • Acknowledged Texas independence

    • New government of Mexico refused to recognize the public of Texas, but the U.S. did.

      • Independent for 9 years

Annexation of Texas (1845)

• Fear of annexing Texas: War with Mexico & slavery issues

• President John Tyler annexed Texas right before he left office.

  • Knew that James Polk would do it anyway

• Enraged Mexico

Mexican-American War (Mr. Polk’s War) (1846-1848)

• Disputed land between Mexico & U.S.

  • Both countries claimed the land between the Nueces River & Rio Grande River.

• President James Polk: Sent a diplomat to Mexico City, offered to buy the disputed land

  • Empty gesture; Polk wanted to say he tried diplomacy before war.

  • Mexico refused.

• Sent 4,000 soldiers under Zachary Taylor to Corpus Christi (border of disputed area)

  • Ordered Taylor to cross into the area but not attack

  • 11 American soldiers were attacked; Mexico took the first shot.

  • Commencing of the Mexican-American War

• Henry David Thoreau (transcendentalist) & Abraham Lincoln (vocally) opposed this war.

Mexican-American War (1846-1848)

• 1846-1848: Fought under numerous fronts

  • 1st front: Zachary Taylor

    • Led troops into northern Mexico

    • Would become President after James Polk

  • 2nd front: Winfield Scott

    • 1st large-scale amphibious assault

    • Troops landed in Veracruz, marched to Mexico City

      • Took the same route as Hernán Cortés when he conquered Tenochtitlan

    • American military controlled Mexico City until treaty signed.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• Controlled Mexico City for 4 months until this treaty

• U.S. gained area from Texas to California

  • Rio Grande River = southern border of Texas

  • Attracted entrepreneurs & settlers

• Victory helped U.S. become a world power.

• Zachary Taylor → President

• Dispute on free/slave states

Gold Rush

• California: Difficult to get to, 3 month trip

  • Bad weather, poor trails, starvation, natives

• Oregon: More attractive

  • Fertile land

  • Oregon Trail: Large-wheeled wagon route from Missouri River to Oregon

• 1848: Gold discovered in California

  • Population boom

  • Fights in Congress to build a transcontinental railroad to the west

• Problems in the west: Lawlessness, failure to find gold, racial conflicts, slavery disputes

  • Chinese & Mexican immigrants in mines

Heimler

Barbary Pirates

• George Washington & John Adams previously paid tribute to the Barbary States (North Africa) in exchange for their protection of American merchant ships.

• Jefferson didn’t want to want to pay tribute in order to engage in trade; he ordered the payments to cease.

  • The barbary pirates lifted their protection and began to attack U.S. merchant ships.

  • Jefferson sent the U.S. Navy to retaliate.

• As things escalated towards war, Jefferson’s administration negotiated a reduced payment to the Barbary States.

• Democratic-Republicans: Strict constructionist view of the Constitution

  • The federal government is only able to do what is explicitly written in the Constitution.

• Federalists: Loose constructionists

  • The federal government had more flexibility with the written word of the Constitution; they could do a lot more.

Louisiana Purchase

• France had a colony in Haiti. In 1791, the Haitians revolted against the French and won their independence in 1801.

  • As a result, Jefferson saw an opportunity to gain navigation rights on the Mississippi River in New Orleans, which was French territory in N.A.

• Jefferson sent James Monroe to France with $2,000,000 to secure those rights from Napoleon.

  • Now that Haiti was lost, Napoleon had little use for the Louisiana Territory, so he sold all of Louisiana for $15,000,000.

    • Monroe was the one in France; he didn’t have a way to tell Jefferson, so he just took the deal.

    • Jefferson was a Democratic-Republican; nothing in the Constitution stated that the President could buy land.

• He justified this purchase by arguing that Indians could be removed further westward and that it’d cut off European influence in the region & open up trading.

  • Jefferson wanted an agriculture economy.

Lewis & Clark

• Corps of Discovery began in 1804; they traveled up the Missouri River to the Pacific coast.

  • Accurate mapping, geographic & scientific knowledge (of the region), diplomatic relations with the Indians there

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

• Before Jefferson’s election, the Congress (Federalist-dominated) passed the Judiciary Act. This created 16 new spots for federal judges in the U.S.

  • As John Adams left office, he appointed judges to fill those spots; this was a way to ensure Federalist-influenced courts. One of them was William Marbury.

• Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison, was unhappy and refused to deliver some of those appointments.

  • The conflict wound up in court, and was led by Chief Justice John Marshall.

    • Decision: The court proclaimed itself to be the final interpreter of the Constitution.

      • Judicial review increased the power of the Supreme Court.

        • McCulloch v. Maryland

War of 1812

Causes

• During this time, France & Britain were fighting, but the U.S. wanted to remain neutral.

  • However, France & Britain kept seizing American merchant ships.

• As Americans were moving west, we were having problems with Indians

  • We were convinced that the British were stirring up this resistance.

• British ships were forcibly capturing Americans and forcing them to serve in the Royal Navy; impressment.

• The Americans declared war on the British.

  • Democratic-Republicans: Support

  • Federalists: Against

Hartford Convention (1814)

• The Federalists were extremely against the War of 1812, so they met up in Hartford and discussed how to end the war.

  • They argued that New England should secede from the Union.

• However, Americans won that war.

Consequences

• Victory created intense nationalism within Americans.

• The Federalist Party fell.

  • Everyone else was rejoicing this victory while the Federalists were opposed to the war; this made them seem out of touch with American reality.

    • Era of Good Feelings: Only the Democratic-Republican Party

• It revealed U.S. weaknesses.

  • There was no National Bank, so it was difficult to raise funds without a reliable source of credit.

  • There was no reliable infrastructure & transportation; it was difficult to move men & supplies for the war.

Henry Clay’s American System

1. Federally funded internal improvements

   • Roads, canals; aid farmers & merchants

2. Implementation of protective tariffs

   • Raising the price on imported goods resulted in people wanting to buy cheaper goods produced in America.

   • Protected U.S. manufacturers

3. 2nd Bank of the U.S

• James Madison vetoed the 1st provision; it expanded federal power, which he believed would disadvantage the South.

• He passed the other 2 provisions.

Talmage Amendment & the Missouri Compromise

• When Missouri applied for statehood, many assumed it would become a slave state, as thousands of U.S. settlers had brought their slaves with them to Missouri.

• The Talmage Amendment by James Talmage (N.Y. Congressman) prohibited slavery in Missouri.

  • Caused a firestorm in Congress; they need to keep a balance in Senate between free & slave states.

• Henry Clay proposed the Missouri Compromise (1820).

  • They’d bring in Missouri as a slave state & Maine as a free state.

  • To prevent future complications, the 36°30’ line would separate slave territory from free territory.

U.S. Borders (North)

• 1816: James Monroe, a Democratic-Republican, won the election.

  • He sent John Quincy Adams to London to settle territorial claims.

  • He negotiated treaties and established the U.S.-Canadian border (49th parallel) & established joint U.S. British occupation of the Oregon Territory.

Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)

• Monroe wanted to limit Spanish influence on the American continent.

• He had John Quincy Adams negotiate the Adams-Onis Treaty.

  • Spain sold Florida to the U.S. & established the location of our southern border.

Monroe Doctrine of 1823

• Some South American countries gained their independence from Spain; Monroe seized the opportunity to proclaim American dominance in the western hemisphere.

• This doctrine established the western hemisphere as a sphere of influence free from European influence.

Market Revolution

• The linking of northern industries with western & southern farms, which was created by advances in agriculture, industry, communication, & transportation.

• Technology:

  • The cotton gin sped up the process of separating seeds from cotton fibers.

  • The spinning machine sped up the process of spinning cotton into yarn.

  • Interchangeable parts: The division of labor into small, repeatable tasks performed by unskilled laborers.

    • They used machines, and thus, could mass produce things.

  • Steamboats allowed trading vessels to navigate upriver and downriver.

• Transportation:

  • The Erie Canal, stretched over New York, had many economic benefits.

    • This launched a campaign for more canals across the nation.

  • 1820’s-1830’s: Railroads began to replace canals as the transportation for trade; local & state governments granted special loans & tax breaks to railroad companies.

  • Effect: American industry became more interconnected & interdependent. It promoted the growth of western agriculture.

• Society:

  • In the north, industrial cities increased in both population & diversity.

  • Many immigrants, mainly Germans and Irish showed up.

    • Settling on the east: Provided a pool of cheap labor, which fueled northern industry.

      • Disease, unsanitary, lived in tenements

    • Migrating west: Established homesteads & farms on the frontier.

  • There was a growing middle class.

    • Emerged in the north and included businessmen, shopkeepers, etc.

    • They spent their income on leisure activities: plays, circuses, etc.

• Women:

  • Expected to conform to a developing societal norm: Cult of Domesticity.

    • A woman’s identity & sense of purpose revolved around childbearing & making her home a haven of rest for her husband.

  • The husband’s proper place was working outside of home.

  • This didn’t extend to the lower class; lower class women had to work to survive.

• Cultural:

  • Immigrants were able to establish their own cultural institutions from back home.

    • Jewish immigrants established synagogues.

    • Irish Catholics led to the expansion of the Catholic Church.

• Voting:

  • Previously, only white, property-owning men were able to vote.

  • Now, working men (small farmers, frontier settlers) began to demand the right to vote.

Panic of 1819

• Caused by irresponsible banking practices & demand for exports (American cotton)

• Effects: Working men were hit the hardest and wanted to hold politicians accountable for their failures to regulate the banks.

  • However, they couldn’t vote.

  • This gathered more “steam”; the frontier states had already established universal male suffrage. So, by 1825, most eastern states lowered their property qualifications for voting.

• Led to the growth & realignment of political parties.

Election of 1824

• Split the Democratic-Republican Party

  • National Republicans: Expansive view of power; Loose Constructionists

    • John Quincy Adams & Henry Clay

  • Democrats: Restricted view of federal power; Strict Constructionists

    • Andrew Jackson

• Jackson won the popular vote, but because there were so many candidates to choose from (4), nobody won the majority of the electoral vote.

  • It falls to the House of Representatives to choose the President.

• Henry Clay happened to be the Speaker of the House, and he threw his support behind John Quincy Adams and the House chose him to be the President.

  • Henry Clay was then named Secretary of the State.

  • “Corrupt Bargain”

Election of 1828

• National Republicans: John Quincy Adams

• Democratic Party: Andrew Jackson

• Andrew Jackson ended up winning.

  • Now, there are 2 new political parties.

    • Democrats: Andrew Jackson

    • Whigs: Henry Clay

Tariff of 1828 (Tariff of Abominations)

• Passed during the Adams administration; raised import duties

  • Protected northern & western industries

  • Hurt southerners because they relied on imported goods

• 1832: Congress reaffirmed that tariff under the Jackson administration.

  • John C. Calhoun, Jackson’s vice President & a South Carolinian, hated this tariff.

  • Developed the Doctrine of Nullification

    • States have the ability to determine the constitutionality of federal laws; if the state found a law to fail the test, they could nullify it.

  • South Carolina held a convention and decided they wouldn’t pay the taxes.

    • They threatened to secede from the union of federal officers came to collect those taxes.

Force Bill

• This gave Jackson the authority to use federal troops to enforce federal law in South Carolina.

• However, he later worked with Congress to lower the tariff so S.C. could remain in the the Union.

  • S.C. nullified the Force Bill.

Second National Bank

• Established as part of Henry Clay’s American System

  • It stabilized the economy (1820’s), but state banks soon began closing; they couldn’t make the required payments to the national bank.

• Andrew Jackson vetoed the recharter for the 2nd National Bank.

  • He thought it favored the elites; he was a man of the people.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

• (Ex) The Cherokee Nation in Georgia had declared itself a sovereign nation.

  • Georgians saw them as guests on their land, but wanted them to move out when gold was discovered.

• The Cherokee refused to be settled across the Mississippi River.

  • Worcester v. Georgia

    • Outcome: Cherokee Nation is sovereign; Georgia didn’t have the right to impose state laws within their boundaries.

• 1835: Treaty of Echota

  • Exchanged Cherokee land in Georgia for a reservation territory west of the Mississippi River.

Trail of Tears (1838)

• Forced removal of natives who did not voluntarily move further west

American Dictionary of the English Language (1828)

• Americans wanted to develop their own distinct identity.

  • Language, philosophy, art, religion

• Noah Webster’s dictionary was used in expanding networks of schools & academies.

  • Standardized the spelling & pronunciation of the English language.

Transcendentalism

• Influenced by European romanticism

• Emphasized human passion & mystery

• Emphasized the transcendant power & beauty of nation

• Ralph Waldo Emerson: Believed that moral perfection could be achieved within the U.S.

• Henry David Thoreau: Lived among nature to experiment human perfection

• Most transcendentalists supported other moral movements of the time (abolition, temperance, women’s suffrage).

• Influenced art; the Hudson River School (N.Y.) painted romanticized landscapes.

  • Effort towards spiritual renewal in America

Spiritual Renewal: Utopian Communities

• Influenced by European intellectuals & American values of democracy & equality

• Oneida Community (1848) was formed in New York.

  • They were a group of Christians convinced that the 2nd Coming of Christ had already occurred.

  • They must live communally and in perfect quality.

    • Relinquished owned property

    • Doctrine of complex marriage: Everyone in the community belonged to everyone else.

Spiritual Renewal: Second Great Awakening

• Baptists, Methodists, & Presbyterians organized camp meetings in the woods.

  • Evangelical preachers would preach all day long.

• These camp meetings were relatively egalitarian; they included whites, blacks, slaves, men, and women.

• Southern Baptists split from their denomination because of the northern Baptists who were abolitionists.

  • This spread to the cities through Charles Finney.

    • He was a N.Y. preacher, spoke in a dialect; people flocked to hear him.

    • His ministry of preaching soon spread across cities in the north.

• 1st Great Awakening: Moral reformation of self

• 2nd Great Awakening: Moral reformation of society

Temperance Movement (1826)

• Influenced by the 2nd Great Awakening

• The American Temperance Society was founded by business men & clergy.

  • Directed towards working-class men who abused alcohol

• Wanted complete abstinence from alcohol.

Mormonism (1840’s)

• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

• Founded by Joseph Smith

  • Claimed to have visions from God

  • Directed to dig up gold plates & translated them into their holy book, The Book of Mormons

• Supporting polygamy led to their persecution

  • He was lynched in Missouri.

• Brigham Young led the Mormon community to establish a theocracy on the Great Salt Lake (Utah territory).

Abolitionism

• 1820’s: Abolitionism was confined to free blacks & Quakers.

• 1831: The Liberator (William Lloyd Garrison)

  • Argued forcefully that whites needed to take a stand against slavery by means of moral persecution, not violence.

• 1833: Creation of the American Anti-Slavery Society

  • Spread across northern states

    • Northern merchants & manufacturers feared abolition because of its potential effects on the cotton & sugar trade.

    • White working men thought it put their jobs in peril.

Women’s Rights

• Many women supported abolitionism, but felt that their status didn’t allow them to advocate for it.

• 1848: Seneca Falls Convention

  • First women’s rights conference in America

  • Drafted the Declaration of Sentiments

    • Women’s equality in education, legal rights, voting

South

• After 1830: Plantations began to expand with westward expansion.

  • Enormous profit for plantation owners

  • Created a wealthy plantation aristocracy

    • They sought to protect their profits & way of life through strict discipline towards the enslaved.

• However, slaves still kept their culture alive.

  • Songs: Sang songs that created a rhythm for their work while expressing their despair and hopes.

• Slave owners went to great lengths to keep their slaves under control; fear of slave uprisings.

• **Most white southerners were yeoman farmers; independent landowners.

  • However, they still believed in the institution of slavery & the racial hierarchy in the south.

• Their soil began becoming depleted of nutrients, so southern farmers began moving west; they brought slavery with them.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831)

• Nat Turner organized a slave revolt in Virginia.

  • Believed that God had given him a mission

• He killed 50+ white people

• Turner & 55 of his followers were publicly hanged.

• This increased fear among southerners, so they imposed harsher disciplines & restrictions.