geog study guide 1

This outline is structured to provide a study guide related to both the readings and the lectures. We have tried to put the titles of lectures and associated reading section titles with the heading for each section. These sections present both general lecture material and an outline of the relevant readings. We encourage you to start with the lecture slides and then refer to the accompanying reading to clarify points that seem more difficult.

Words in italics are specific terms or concepts from the lecture or text that you should be familiar with. In general, the questions will be a mix of questions examining your understanding of processes as well as some testing your knowledge of terminology and basic facts.

You will be tested on material through Lecture 6 “Climate Change,”.  The exam will not include anything covered after climate change. The exam will not cover the material on how you learn.

Introduction and Systems   (PDF:  Lecture 2: Scale & Shape of the Earth)

1.  Introducing Geography and Science

            a.  Geography (study of place, geography as science)

            b.  Science (science, empiricism, scientific method, reduction, analysis)

2.  Earth Spheres, Scale, Systems, Thermodynamics

a.  Earth Spheres (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere)

            b.  Scale and Process

-  Scale can refer to both space (global, continental, regional, local, individual) and time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, seasons, years, decades, centuries, millennia)

c.  Systems in Physical Geography (Systems, natural flow systems, closed vs.      open systems, inputs, outputs, pathways, positive feedback, negative     feedback, equilibrium)

            d.  Thermodynamics and the energy of life (conservation of energy, entropy)

            e.  Time Cycles (Time cycles)

3.  The Shape of the Earth (oblate ellipsoid)

4.  Earth Rotation (rotation, axis, solar day)

            - Earth rotates counterclockwise looking down at the North Pole 

5.  The Geographic Grid

a.  Parallels and Meridians (Parallel, equator, meridian, geographic grid, great circle, small circle, poles)

b.  Latitude and Longitude (Latitude, longitude, degrees/minutes/seconds)

6. Map projections (cartography, projection, scale fraction)

7.  The Earth’s Revolution Around the Sun

            a.  Tilt of the Earth’s Axis (plane of the ecliptic)

            b.  Seasons and why the distance from the sun is not what determines the            seasons (tilt, revolution, aphelion, perihelion)

            c.  Solstice and Equinox (winter solstice, summer solstice, equinox (you don’t       need to know the exact dates, but you should know the months/seasons of each)

            d.  Equinox Conditions

e.  Solstice Conditions (i.e. what is day length, sun angle, and likely temperature at different places on the globe such as the equator, tropics, mid-latitude, arctic/Antarctic circle, poles) (Arctic circle, tropic of cancer, Antarctic circle, tropic of Capricorn)

f. How the analemma illustrates the position of the Sun in the sky at different seasons, for the equinoxes, solstices, etc.

Radiation     (PDF: Lecture 3: Radiation)

1.  Electromagnetic Radiation (electromagnetic spectrum, wavelength, radiation, blackbody curves, shortwave radiation, longwave radiation, characteristics of solar energy, characteristics of the Earth’s energy)

2.  Photosynthesis and respiration

The Earth’s Global Energy Budget     (PDF: Lecture 4: Energy Balance)

1.  Insolation Over the Globe (Insolation, daily insolation at a location dependent on         angle at which sun’s rays strike Earth and the length of time of exposure to the           rays)

a.  Insolation and the Path of the Sun in the Sky (Daily insolation through the year at various latitudes)

            b.  Daily Insolation through the Year

2.  World Latitude Zones (equatorial zone, tropical zones, subtropical zones, midlatitude zones, subarctic/subantarctic zones, arctic/antarctic zones, polar zones)

3.  Composition of the Atmosphere (Component gases of the lower atmosphere, slides    with constant and variable gases (you don’t need to know specific percentages,    but relative amounts are important)

            a.  Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere (ozone)

4. Structure of the atmosphere and how the layers are defined based on changing           temperature with altitude (troposphere, stratosphere,mesosphere, thermosphere,     tropopause, stratopause, mesopause)

5.  Movement of energy (radiation, conduction, convection, sensible heat, sensible heat   transfer, latent heat, latent heat transfer)

6.  The Global Energy System

a.  Solar Energy Losses in the Atmosphere (Figure- Fate of insolation, diffuse radiation, diffuse scattering)

            b.  Albedo (albedo)

            c.  Counterradiation and the Greenhouse Effect (counterradiation, greenhouse     effect, greenhouse gases, know what the Earth would be like without the natural            greenhouse effect)

7.  Global Energy Budgets of the Atmosphere and Surface

            a.  Incoming Solar Radiation (Diagram of the global energy balance)

            b.  Surface Energy Flows

            c.  Energy Flows to and from the Atmosphere

            d.  Climate and Global Change

8.  Net Radiation, Latitude, and the Energy Balance (Net radiation, poleward heat             transfer)

Air Temperature        (PDF:  Lecture 5 Temperature)

1.     Surface Temperature (Five factors that influence air temps: insolation, latitude, surface type, coastal vs. interior location, elevation; albedo, net radiation, conduction, latent heat transfer, convection)

2.     Air Temperature

a.     Measurement of Air Temperature (Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale)

b.     Warm air is less dense than cold air so warm air rises and cold air sinks

3.     The Daily Cycle of Air Temperature

a.     Daily Insolation and Net Radiation (Figure- Daily cycles of insolation)

b.     Daily Temperature (Figure-Air temperature)

c.     Environmental Contrasts: Urban and Rural Temperatures (transpiration, evapotranspiration)

d.     The Urban Heat Island (heat island, Figure-Urban heat island profile)

4.     Elevation & Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere (environmental lapse rate)

a.     Troposphere (troposphere, precipitation, aerosols, tropopause)

b.     Stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere (stratosphere, ozone layer mesosphere, thermosphere)

c.     High Mountain Environments (Figure-The effect of elevation on air temperature cycles)

d.     Temperature Inversion (Temperature inversion)

5.     Net Radiation and Temperature

a.     Net Radiation and Temperature (Net radiation and temperature cycles)

6.      Land and Water Contrasts (Maritime and continental temperatures)

                                      i.    Daily Air Temperature Cycles

                                     ii.     Annual Temperature Cycle

7.     World Patterns of Air Temperature (isotherms, temperature gradients)

a.     World Air Temperature Patterns for January and July (Figure-Mean monthly air temperatures)

                                      i.    Temperatures decrease from the equator to the poles

                                     ii.     Large land masses located in the subarctic and arctic zones develop centers of extremely low temperatures

                                    iii.     Temperatures in equatorial regions change little from January to July

                                   iv.     Isotherms make a large north-south shift from January to July over continents in the midlatitude and subarctic zones

                                    v.     Highlands are always colder than surrounding lowlands

                                   vi.     Areas of perpetual ice and snow are always intensely cold

Climate Change                    (PDF:  Lecture 6 Climate Change)

1.     Weather vs. climate (weather, climate)

a.     Earth has many climates based on temperature and precipitation

b.     Organisms adapt to their climate

2.     IPCC report of 2001:  Recent climate change and climate change in the 21st century

3.     Global climate change

a.     Temperature is increasing, spring arrives earlier, autumn arrives later, more heat waves in the US

b.     Modeled and observed temperature changes globally and for different continents with and without human effects

4.     Evidence for climate change: Temperature records

5.     Paleoclimate tools (ice cores, tree rings, pollin studies, charcoal, middens, cosmogenic dating)

6.     The natural vs. anthropogenic greenhouse effect

7.     Global Energy balance (Global energy balance, climate change, radiative forcing, radiative feedback, understand which forcings are human caused vs. natural and which are positive vs. negative)

8.     Greenhouse gases (For values like atmospheric lifetime or GWP, know what it means, and relative amounts, but not actual numbers. For example, one molecule of CFC has a much higher GWP than one carbon dioxide molecule, but there is much more total carbon dioxide so the overall effect of carbon dioxide is greater)

a.     Natural and man-made greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbon, ozone, water vapor; know how humans affect atmospheric amounts of each of these and know why there is an annual cycle of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that is part of the long-term rise in concentration)

b.     Atmospheric lifetime

c.     Radiative efficiency

d.     Global warming potential

9.     The aerosol effect (Note that many aerosol pollutants cool the Earth)

10.  Climate modeling and predictions

a.     With no changes to our current emissions and growth the Earth will become much hotter than if we take steps to halt carbon dioxide emissions. The largest temperature increases will occur at the poles with smaller increases at the equator.

11.  The bathtub example

a.     Natural inputs and outputs (pre-1750) (Decay and respiration, plate tectonics, ocean release, ocean absorption, soil uptake, biomass use)

b.     Anthropogenic changes (fossil fuel burning, cement production, land use)

c.     Changing outputs where excess carbon dioxide is partially accommodated by increased uptake from oceans, plants, and soil

d.     Six implications of the bathtub concept

12.  Effects of climate change including higher temperatures, melting ice caps, permafrost and glaciers, rising sea levels, precipitation changes, shifting climate and seasonality, effects on organisms and food webs, ocean acidification, photosynthesis changes, health effects, and major disruptions like the ocean conveyor

13.  Feedbacks in global warming (Positive, negative, and uncertain feedbacks)

14.  International implications of global climate change

15.  Mitigation vs. adaptation

16.  The ozone layer

a.     Reduced stratospheric ozone allows more ultraviolet radiation to reach the surface

b.     Different wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation (A, B. C) are absorbed in different layers

c.     The ozone layer is thinning, especially around the poles (more in the south) as a result of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals. One CFC molecule can destroy many ozone molecules

d.     Excess ultraviolet radiation causes cancers and damages all organisms exposed

 Lecture 2: Scale & Shape of the Earth

1. Introducing Geography and Science

Geography: The study of place, spatial relationships, and the interaction between humans and their environment. It is both a physical and social science.

Science: A systematic approach to understanding the natural world based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning.

• Empiricism: Knowledge derived from sensory experience and observation.

• Scientific Method: A structured process involving observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and conclusion.

• Reduction: Breaking down complex systems into simpler components for study.

• Analysis: The detailed examination of elements or structure.

2. Earth Spheres, Scale, Systems, Thermodynamics

Earth’s Spheres:

• Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth.

• Lithosphere: Earth’s outer solid layer, including landforms and geological structures.

• Hydrosphere: All of Earth’s water (oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers).

• Biosphere: All living organisms and their interactions with other spheres.

Scale & Process:

• Spatial scales: Global, continental, regional, local, individual.

• Temporal scales: Seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, seasons, years, decades, centuries, millennia.

Systems in Physical Geography:

• Natural Flow Systems: Movement of matter and energy (e.g., water cycle, atmospheric circulation).

• Closed vs. Open Systems:

  • Closed: No mass exchange (e.g., Earth’s energy system).

  • Open: Exchanges mass and energy (e.g., rivers, weather systems).

• Inputs/Outputs: Energy or material entering/exiting a system.

• Pathways: Routes of movement within a system.

• Feedback Loops:

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes (e.g., ice-albedo feedback).

  • Negative Feedback: Stabilizes systems (e.g., predator-prey dynamics).

• Equilibrium: A state of balance within a system.

Thermodynamics & Energy of Life:

• First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

• Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy (disorder) increases in a closed system.

Time Cycles:

• Repeating processes like seasons, climate cycles, and plate tectonics.

3. Shape of the Earth

• Oblate Ellipsoid: Earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator due to rotation.

4. Earth’s Rotation

• Rotation: Earth spins counterclockwise on its axis (24-hour cycle).

• Solar Day: Time taken for the Sun to return to the same position in the sky (~24 hours).

5. The Geographic Grid

• Parallels (Latitude): Measure distance north/south from the equator.

• Meridians (Longitude): Measure distance east/west from the Prime Meridian.

• Great Circles: The shortest path between two points on a sphere.

6. Map Projections

• Cartography: The science of map-making.

• Projection: Methods of representing Earth's curved surface on a flat map.

• Scale Fraction: The ratio of distance on a map to actual distance on Earth.

7. Earth’s Revolution Around the Sun

• Tilt of Earth’s Axis: 23.5° tilt relative to the plane of the ecliptic.

• Aphelion: Earth is farthest from the Sun (July).

• Perihelion: Earth is closest to the Sun (January).

• Seasons: Caused by axial tilt, not distance from the Sun.

• Solstice & Equinox:

  • Summer/Winter Solstice: Longest/shortest days of the year.

  • Equinoxes: Equal daylight and nighttime hours globally.

• Analemma: A diagram showing the Sun’s position in the sky throughout the year.

Lecture 3: Radiation

1. Electromagnetic Radiation

• Electromagnetic Spectrum: Includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves.

• Wavelength: Distance between two wave crests; shorter wavelengths carry more energy.

• Solar Energy: Mostly shortwave radiation.

• Earth’s Energy: Mostly longwave radiation.

2. Photosynthesis & Respiration

• Photosynthesis: Converts solar energy into chemical energy (glucose) using CO2 and water.

• Respiration: The process by which organisms convert glucose into energy, releasing CO2 and water.

Lecture 4: Energy Balance

1. Insolation Over the Globe

• Daily Insolation: Depends on the Sun’s angle and duration of daylight.

• World Latitude Zones: Equatorial, tropical, subtropical, mid-latitude, subarctic, arctic, and polar zones.

2. Composition of the Atmosphere

• Constant Gases: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%).

• Variable Gases: Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water vapor.

• Ozone Layer: Absorbs UV radiation.

3. Structure of the Atmosphere

• Troposphere: Weather occurs here.

• Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer.

• Mesosphere: Coldest layer.

• Thermosphere: High temperatures due to solar radiation.

4. Energy Transfer

• Radiation: Transfer via electromagnetic waves.

• Conduction: Transfer via direct contact.

• Convection: Transfer via fluid movement.

• Latent Heat Transfer: Energy absorbed or released during phase changes of water.

Lecture 5: Air Temperature

1. Factors Influencing Air Temperature

• Insolation, latitude, surface type, proximity to water, elevation.

• Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities are warmer than surrounding rural areas due to concrete, asphalt, and reduced vegetation.

2. Temperature Measurement

• Scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit.

• Warm Air Rises, Cold Air Sinks: Convection in atmosphere.

3. Land & Water Temperature Contrasts

• Maritime vs. Continental Climates: Water moderates temperature variations.

Lecture 6: Climate Change

1. Weather vs. Climate

• Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.

• Climate: Long-term patterns.

2. Evidence for Climate Change

• Temperature records, ice cores, tree rings, pollen studies.

3. Greenhouse Effect

• Natural vs. Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases: CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs, water vapor.

• Aerosols: Some cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight.

4. Climate Change Effects

• Rising temperatures, melting ice caps, sea-level rise, changing precipitation, ocean acidification.

5. Mitigation vs. Adaptation

• Mitigation: Reducing emissions.

• Adaptation: Adjusting to climate changes.

6. Ozone Layer

• Ozone Depletion: Caused by CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) which break down ozone molecules in the stratosphere, leading to increased UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface.

1) Which of the following is the best explanation of what the Earth would be like if there were
no greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and therefore no natural greenhouse effect?
a. Life as we know it would not exist because there would be no oxygen to breathe.
b. Atmospheric pressure at the surface would be dramatically lower because
greenhouse gases make up a large percentage of the atmosphere’s composition.
c. At the surface, the Earth would be much warmer than it is under present conditions
because there would be fewer clouds reflecting incoming solar radiation into space.
d. Surface temperatures at high latitudes would be much colder because greenhouse
gases scatter blue light from the equator to the higher latitudes.
e. Surface temperatures would be much colder because there would be no greenhouse
gases trapping long-wave radiation being emitted from the Earth’s surface.
2) You enjoy planting sun-loving plants like sunflowers and corn in the summer and you like to
look down at your plants from the second story of your house. Where would it be best to
plant your garden relative to your house in Connecticut and why?
a. On the north side of the house because we are in the northern hemisphere
b. On the south side of the house because the sun is in the southern part of the sky
throughout the day
c. On the eastern side of the house to get the best morning sun
d. On the western side of the house to get more sun in the afternoon when it is warmer
e. The location relative to the house does not matter so long as there aren’t any trees
3) For which of the following would we generally consider the Earth to be an open system?
a. Radiation
b. Clouds
c. Ozone
d. Rocks
e. Vegetation
4) Why does carbon dioxide have an annual rise and fall in concentration in the atmosphere?
a. Plants emit more carbon dioxide in the spring when they are making new leaves and
less in the fall.
b. Deciduous trees in the northern hemisphere absorb more carbon dioxide in the
northern summer when they are photosynthesizing.
c. Phytoplankton in the ocean absorb more carbon dioxide in the northern summer
when the sun is over the northern oceans.
d. The higher population of the northern hemisphere emits more carbon dioxide in the
northern summer when power demands are high.
e. Tidal forces cause the Earth to outgas more carbon dioxide when the Earth is closer
to the sun.
5) According to the bathtub concept, if we were to cease all anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions by 2100,
a. The Earth’s temperature would continue to rise dramatically
b. The Earth’s temperature would drop back to pre-industrial levels
c. The Earth’s temperature would stabilize, but remain well above pre-industrial levels
d. The Earth’s temperature would drop below pre-industrial levels
e. The Earth’s temperature would stabilize well above pre-industrial levels and then
slowly decline over tens of thousands of years
6) Given that the Earth rotates counter-clockwise when looking down at the North Pole, where
would you expect the sun to rise on June 21 in Hobart, Tasmania (~42 degrees, 52
minutes south latitude)?
a. East
b. West

c. Southeast
d. Northeast
e. South

Lecture 2: Scale & Shape of the Earth

1. Which of the following is NOT an example of an Earth system?
   a. The lithosphere
   b. The atmosphere
   c. The hydrosphere
   d. The asthenosphere

2. What is the best description of a closed system in physical geography?
   a. A system that exchanges both matter and energy with its surroundings
   b. A system that does not exchange matter but allows energy transfer
   c. A system that neither exchanges matter nor energy
   d. A system that only exchanges solid materials

3. Which of the following is true about the Earth’s rotation?
   a. It rotates in a clockwise direction when viewed from above the North Pole
   b. It completes a full rotation every 365.25 days
   c. It is responsible for the daily cycle of night and day
   d. It has no impact on time zones

Lecture 3: Radiation

4. What type of radiation does the Earth primarily emit back into space?
   a. Ultraviolet radiation
   b. Infrared radiation
   c. X-ray radiation
   d. Gamma radiation

5. Which of the following best describes the relationship between wavelength and energy in the electromagnetic spectrum?
   a. Longer wavelengths have higher energy
   b. Shorter wavelengths have higher energy
   c. All wavelengths carry the same energy
   d. Energy is unrelated to wavelength

Lecture 4: Energy Balance

6. Which gases in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect?
   a. Oxygen and nitrogen
   b. Carbon dioxide and methane
   c. Hydrogen and helium
   d. Argon and neon

7. The troposphere is important because:
   a. It contains the ozone layer, which protects against harmful radiation
   b. It is where all weather occurs
   c. It is the hottest layer of the atmosphere
   d. It is the boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and space

Lecture 5: Air Temperature

8. Why do coastal areas generally have milder climates than inland areas?
   a. The ocean absorbs and releases heat more slowly than land
   b. Water reflects all incoming solar radiation
   c. Ocean waves cool the land by generating strong winds
   d. The altitude of coastal areas is lower

9. Which of the following factors has the least impact on air temperature?
   a. Latitude
   b. Surface type
   c. Proximity to water
   d. The number of earthquakes in the region

Lecture 6: Climate Change

10. Which of the following is NOT a consequence of global climate change?
    a. Rising sea levels
    b. Increased frequency of extreme weather events
    c. A decrease in atmospheric greenhouse gases
    d. Ocean acidification

11. The Montreal Protocol was an international agreement designed to:
    a. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
    b. Phase out the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to protect the ozone layer
    c. Promote renewable energy sources worldwide
    d. Establish a global carbon tax

12. Which of the following is an example of climate adaptation rather than mitigation?
    a. Reducing the use of fossil fuels
    b. Building sea walls to protect against rising sea levels
    c. Reforestation efforts to increase carbon sequestration
    d. Developing carbon capture technology