3.1: Context of State Building from 1648-1815

The Different Levels of Sovereignty

• The period from 1648 to 1815 is known as the era of state-building in Europe.

• During this period, the concept of sovereignty underwent significant changes.

Major Levels of Sovereignity

• Dynastic Sovereignty

  • Dynastic sovereignty refers to the power of the monarchs or ruling families.

  • During the early modern period, dynastic sovereignty was the most prevalent form of sovereignty.

  • The monarchs had absolute power and were considered to be above the law.

  • The monarchs had the power to make laws, levy taxes, and wage wars.

• Territorial Sovereignty

  • Territorial sovereignty refers to the power of the state over its territory.

  • During the state-building period, territorial sovereignty became more important than dynastic sovereignty.

  • The state's power was based on its control over its territory, and the state's legitimacy was derived from its ability to protect its citizens.

  • The state's power was exercised through a centralized bureaucracy, which was responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining law and order, and providing public services.

• Popular Sovereignty

  • Popular sovereignty refers to the power of the people.

  • During the state-building period, popular sovereignty emerged as a new form of sovereignty.

  • The idea of popular sovereignty was based on the belief that the people were the ultimate source of power.

  • The people had the right to participate in the government, and the government's legitimacy was derived from the consent of the governed.

Language Minority Groups

• The Scottish Highlands

  • Were home to a distinct Gaelic-speaking population who resisted the attempts of the English government to impose their language and culture on them.

• Catalonia

  • A region in Spain, has a distinct language and culture that has been suppressed by the Spanish government for centuries.

  • The Catalonian people have long fought for greater autonomy and recognition of their unique identity.

• Ireland

  • The Irish language was suppressed by the English government during the period of British rule.

  • The Irish people fought for independence and the recognition of their language and culture.

Rise of Absolutism and Challenges to Order

• Absolutism refers to a form of government where the monarch has complete control over the state and its citizens.

• It emerged in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, as monarchs sought to consolidate their power and centralize their authority.

• Absolutist rulers claimed to rule by divine right, meaning that they believed their power came directly from God and that they were accountable only to God.

• Some of the most famous absolutist rulers include Louis XIV of France, Peter the Great of Russia, and Charles I of England.

• While absolutism brought stability and order to many European states, it also faced challenges from various groups.

• The nobility, who had previously held significant power and influence, often resisted the centralization of power and the loss of their privileges.

• Religious groups, such as the Protestants in France and England, also challenged absolutist rule, as they sought greater religious freedom and autonomy.

• The rise of capitalism and the growth of the middle class also challenged absolutism, as these groups sought greater economic and political power.

• Finally, the Enlightenment, which emphasized reason, individualism, and liberty, challenged the idea of absolute monarchy and paved the way for the rise of democracy and constitutionalism.

3.2: The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution

English Civil War

• The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between 1642 and 1651 in England.

• The war was fought between the Royalists, who supported King Charles I, and the Parliamentarians, who were led by Oliver Cromwell.

  • King James I:

    • First Stuart king of England

    • Sponsored the translation of the Bible into English

    • Believed in the divine right of kings

  • King Charles I:

    • Dismissed Parliament and ruled alone for 11 years

    • Sparked the English Civil War

    • Executed for high treason

  • Oliver Cromwell:

    • Led the Parliamentarian army during the English Civil War

    • Established the Commonwealth of England

    • Ruled as Lord Protector until his death

• Causes

  • Religious differences: King Charles I was a staunch Anglican, while many of his subjects were Puritans who wanted to reform the Church of England.

  • Political tensions: The King believed in the divine right of kings and was unwilling to share power with Parliament.

  • Economic issues: The King's attempts to raise revenue without the consent of Parliament led to widespread resentment.

• Major Battles

  • Battle of Edgehill (1642): The first major battle of the war, fought to gain control of London.

  • Battle of Marston Moor (1644): A decisive victory for the Parliamentarians, which secured their control of northern England.

  • Battle of Naseby (1645): The most significant battle of the war, which resulted in the defeat of the Royalist army and the capture of King Charles I.

• Outcome

  • The Parliamentarians emerged victorious, and King Charles I was executed in 1649.

  • Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland, effectively ruling as a military dictator.

  • The monarchy was restored in 1660, but with reduced powers and a greater emphasis on parliamentary sovereignty.

• Significance

  • The English Civil War marked a turning point in English history, as it established the principle of parliamentary sovereignty and limited the power of the monarchy.

  • It also had a profound impact on the development of democracy and constitutional government in England and other parts of the world.

The Glorious Revolution

• The Glorious Revolution was a bloodless revolution that took place in England in 1688. Here are some key points to note:

• It was triggered by the fear of a Catholic succession to the English throne. King James II, a Catholic, had two daughters who were Protestant, but he also had a son who was Catholic. This raised concerns among the Protestant nobility and the Church of England.

• William of Orange: A group of English nobles invited William of Orange, a Dutch Protestant prince, to invade England and take the throne. William landed in England with an army in November 1688.

• James II's flight: King James II fled to France when he realized that he had no support among the English nobility or the army. This was a bloodless revolution, as there was no fighting between the two sides.

• Bill of Rights: The English Parliament passed the Bill of Rights in 1689, which established the supremacy of Parliament over the monarch and guaranteed certain rights to English citizens, such as the right to bear arms and the right to a fair trial.

• The Glorious Revolution had a significant impact on English politics and society. It established the principle of parliamentary sovereignty and limited the power of the monarch. It also paved the way for the development of a constitutional monarchy in England.

3.3: Continuities and Changes to Economic Practice and Development from 1648-1815

The Agricultural Revolution

• Also known as the Agrarian Revolution, was a period of significant agricultural development that took place in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.

• It was a time of great change in farming practices and technology, which led to increased productivity and efficiency in agriculture.

Causes of the Agricultural Revolution

• Population growth: The population of Europe was growing rapidly during this time, which put pressure on farmers to produce more food.

• Enclosure movement: The enclosure movement was a process of fencing off common land and consolidating small farms into larger ones. This allowed for more efficient use of land and increased productivity.

• Technological advancements: New technologies such as the seed drill, plow, and threshing machine were developed, which made farming more efficient and productive.

• New crops: New crops such as potatoes and maize were introduced to Europe, which provided a new source of food and increased agricultural diversity.

Effects of the Agricultural Revolution

• Increased food production: The Agricultural Revolution led to a significant increase in food production, which helped to feed the growing population of Europe.

• Improved efficiency: The new farming technologies and practices led to increased efficiency in agriculture, which allowed farmers to produce more food with less labor.

• Urbanization: The increased productivity in agriculture allowed for more people to move to cities and work in other industries.

• Agricultural surplus: The surplus of food produced during the Agricultural Revolution allowed for the growth of international trade and commerce.

The Commercial Revolution

• This was a period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism that lasted from the 16th to the 18th century.

• It was characterized by the growth of international trade, the development of new financial instruments, and the rise of capitalism.

Causes of the Commercial Revolution

• Exploration and Colonization: European powers began exploring and colonizing new territories, which led to the discovery of new resources and markets.

• Technological Advances: The development of new technologies, such as the printing press, improved transportation, and navigation tools, made it easier to conduct long-distance trade.

• Rise of Capitalism: The emergence of capitalism as an economic system encouraged the growth of trade and commerce.

Key Features of the Commercial Revolution

• Growth of International Trade: The Commercial Revolution led to an increase in international trade, as European powers established trade networks with other regions of the world.

• Development of Financial Instruments: The Commercial Revolution saw the development of new financial instruments, such as bills of exchange, which made it easier to conduct long-distance trade.

• Rise of Mercantilism: Mercantilism, an economic theory that emphasized the importance of accumulating wealth through trade, became the dominant economic system during the Commercial Revolution.

• Expansion of Colonialism: European powers established colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia, which provided them with new resources and markets.

Impact of the Commercial Revolution

• Growth of Capitalism: The Commercial Revolution played a key role in the development of capitalism as an economic system.

• Expansion of European Empires: The Commercial Revolution led to the expansion of European empires, as European powers established colonies in new territories.

• Development of Global Trade Networks: The Commercial Revolution helped to establish global trade networks that connected Europe with other regions of the world.

• Emergence of Modern Banking: The Commercial Revolution saw the emergence of modern banking, as banks began to play a key role in financing international trade.

3.4: Economic Development and Mercantilism

Economic Development

• The 16th to 17th century saw a significant increase in economic development in Europe.

• The discovery of new trade routes and the colonization of the Americas led to the growth of international trade.

• The rise of capitalism and the development of banking and finance systems also contributed to economic growth.

• The growth of industry and manufacturing led to the development of new technologies and the expansion of urban areas.

Mercantilism

• Mercantilism was an economic theory that dominated European economic policy during the 16th to 18th century.

• The goal of mercantilism was to increase a nation's wealth by promoting exports and limiting imports.

• Governments implemented policies such as tariffs, subsidies, and monopolies to protect domestic industries and promote exports.

• Mercantilism also led to the establishment of colonial empires, as European powers sought to control resources and markets in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

• Critics of mercantilism argued that it led to economic inefficiencies and stifled competition.

Consumer Culture

• Consumer culture refers to a society in which people define themselves by what they consume.

• The rise of consumer culture was fueled by increased trade and commerce, which brought new goods and products to Europe.

• The growth of cities and the rise of the middle class also contributed to the development of consumer culture.

• Consumer culture was characterized by a desire for luxury goods and a focus on material possessions.

• The consumption of goods became a way for people to display their wealth and status.

• Advertising and marketing played a role in promoting consumer culture, with merchants using various tactics to attract customers.

• The growth of consumer culture had both positive and negative effects, with some people enjoying greater access to goods and others becoming trapped in debt and poverty.

The Slave Trade

• The slave trade refers to the transatlantic trade of enslaved Africans from the 16th to the 19th century.

• It was driven by the demand for cheap labor in the Americas, particularly in the production of sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

• European powers, including Portugal, Spain, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, were involved in the slave trade.

• African slaves were captured by African intermediaries and sold to European slave traders on the coast.

• The slaves were then transported across the Atlantic in brutal conditions known as the Middle Passage.

• Many slaves died during the journey due to disease, malnutrition, and mistreatment.

• Slavery was abolished in the 19th century due to the efforts of abolitionists and the growing recognition of the inhumane treatment of slaves.

• The legacy of slavery continues to impact societies today, particularly in terms of racial inequality and discrimination.

3.5: The Dutch Golden Age

• The Dutch Golden Age was a period of great prosperity and cultural achievement in the Netherlands during the 17th century.

Economic Growth

• The Dutch Golden Age was fueled by a booming economy.

• The Netherlands was a major trading nation, with a vast network of trade routes that spanned the globe.

• Dutch merchants traded in a variety of goods, including spices, textiles, and precious metals.

• The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company were two of the most powerful trading companies in the world.

Artistic Development

• The Dutch Golden Age was also a time of great artistic achievement. .

• Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Frans Hals produced some of the most iconic works of art in history.

• Dutch art of the period was characterized by its realism, attention to detail, and use of light and shadow.

Political Power

• The Dutch Golden Age was also a time of political power for the Netherlands.

• The Dutch Republic was a major player in European politics, and its navy was one of the most powerful in the world.

• The Dutch also played a key role in the Thirty Years' War, which helped to establish their position as a major power in Europe.

Decline

• The Dutch Golden Age came to an end in the late 17th century. Economic competition from other European powers, as well as internal political and economic problems, led to a decline in Dutch power and influence.

• However, the legacy of the Dutch Golden Age lives on, and the period remains an important part of Dutch history and culture.

3.6: Balance of Power

The Wars of King Louis XIV

• War of Devolution (1667-1668): Louis XIV's attempt to claim Spanish Netherlands through his wife's inheritance.

• Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678): France vs. Dutch Republic and allies, ended with Treaty of Nijmegen.

• War of the Reunions (1683-1684): France vs. Holy Roman Empire, ended with Truce of Ratisbon.

• Nine Years' War (1688-1697): France vs. Grand Alliance (England, Dutch Republic, Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Savoy), ended with Treaty of Ryswick.

• War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714): France vs. Grand Alliance (England, Dutch Republic, Holy Roman Empire, Portugal, Savoy, Spain), ended with Treaty of Utrecht.

Decline of Empires

• During the 16th to 18th century, several empires experienced a decline.

• The Ottoman Empire faced economic and military challenges, while the Mughal Empire suffered from weak leadership and internal conflict.

• The Spanish Empire faced financial difficulties and lost its dominant position in Europe.

• The Portuguese Empire also declined due to economic problems and competition from other European powers.

• The decline of these empires paved the way for the rise of new powers in the following centuries.

The Military Revolution

• Gustavus Adolphus

  • He was a Swedish king from 1611 to 1632.

  • He is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history.

  • He became king of Sweden at the age of 17 and immediately began to reform the Swedish military, introducing new tactics and weapons.

  • He led Sweden to victory in the Thirty Years' War and is known for his use of combined arms tactics.

  • He was killed in battle on November 6, 1632, at the age of 37, while leading his troops in the Battle of Lützen against the forces of the Holy Roman Empire.

  • Despite his death, he is remembered as one of the greatest military commanders in history and a national hero in Sweden.

• The Habsburgs

  • The Habsburgs were a powerful European dynasty for over six centuries.

  • They originated in Switzerland, but moved to Austria in the 13th century.

  • They controlled much of Central Europe, Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands.

  • The Habsburgs expanded through strategic marriages, including Maximilian I's marriage to Mary of Burgundy and Charles V's marriage to Isabella of Portugal.

  • They were defenders of Catholicism and fought against Protestant powers.

  • The Habsburgs were patrons of the arts and sciences, and their court in Vienna was a center of culture.

  • Their power declined in the 18th century and they were eventually swept away by 20th-century events, including World War I and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

3.7: Absolutist Approaches to Power

Absolutism and Divine Rights

• Absolutism is a political theory that asserts that the monarch has absolute power over the state and its people.

  • It emerged in Europe during the 16th century and was popularized by monarchs such as Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia.

• Divine Rights is a concept that supports the idea of Absolutism.

  • It states that the monarch is appointed by God to rule and has the divine right to do so.

  • This theory was used to justify the absolute power of monarchs and to discourage rebellion against them.

• Absolutism and Divine Rights were often used to suppress dissent and maintain order in society.

  • The monarchs who believed in these theories were able to centralize power and control the economy, military, and religion of their respective states.

Foundations of French Absolutism

• French Absolutism refers to the period of French history from the 16th century to the French Revolution in 1789, during which the French monarchy had absolute control over the country's political, social, and economic affairs.

• Henry IV (1589-1610)

  • Henry IV was the first Bourbon king of France and the first to establish a strong centralized monarchy.

  • He ended the Wars of Religion by issuing the Edict of Nantes, which granted religious toleration to the Huguenots (Protestants).

  • He also reformed the tax system, reduced the power of the nobility, and promoted economic growth.

• Louis XIII (1610-1643)

  • Louis XIII was a weak king who relied heavily on his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, to govern France.

  • Richelieu centralized power by creating a network of intendants (royal officials) who were responsible for enforcing the king's policies throughout the country.

  • He also weakened the power of the nobility by requiring them to live at the royal court and participate in the king's ceremonies.

• Louis XIV (1643-1715)

  • Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, is the most famous of the French absolutist monarchs.

  • He centralized power by establishing a highly centralized bureaucracy and a system of royal patronage that rewarded loyalty to the king.

  • He also weakened the power of the nobility by requiring them to live at the Palace of Versailles and participate in the king's daily routines.

  • He promoted economic growth by supporting the development of French industry and trade.

Russian Absolutism

• Russian Absolutism refers to the period of autocratic rule by the Tsars of Russia from the late 16th century until the early 20th century. It was characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of the Tsar, who had complete control over the government, the military, and the church.

• Key Features

  • Centralization of Power: The Tsar had complete control over the government, the military, and the church. All decisions were made by the Tsar and his advisors, and there was no separation of powers.

  • Divine Right of Kings: The Tsar was believed to be chosen by God to rule, and his authority was absolute. He was not bound by laws or constitutions, and his word was law.

  • Serfdom: The majority of the population were serfs, who were tied to the land and had no rights. They were considered the property of their lords and could be bought and sold like any other commodity.

  • Expansionist Policies: The Tsars pursued a policy of territorial expansion, which led to the acquisition of vast territories in Siberia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.

• Russian Absolutism had a profound impact on Russian society and politics.

• It created a highly centralized state with a powerful bureaucracy and a strong military.

• It also reinforced the idea of the Tsar as the embodiment of the Russian state and the protector of the Orthodox Church.

• However, it also led to widespread poverty and inequality, as the majority of the population were serfs who had no rights or freedoms.

• It also contributed to the economic and social backwardness of Russia, which lagged behind Western Europe in terms of industrialization and modernization.

3.8: Comparison in the Age of Absolutism and Constitutionalism

• Absolutism and constitutionalism represent two different approaches to governance.

• Absolutism emphasizes the power of the monarch and the centralization of power, while constitutionalism emphasizes the rule of law and the protection of individual rights.

• Absolutism often led to conflict between the monarch and other governing bodies, while constitutionalism emphasized cooperation and compromise.

• Both systems had their strengths and weaknesses, and their legacies can still be seen in modern political systems.