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Module 1 – Psychology & Its History: Comprehensive Study Notes

Learning Targets

  • 1-1 Explain how psychology is a science and why “the rat is always right.”

  • 1-2 Describe the three key elements of the scientific attitude and how they support scientific inquiry.

  • 1-3 Explain how critical thinking feeds a scientific attitude and produces smarter thinking for everyday life.

  • 1-4 Trace psychology’s development from early mind–body speculations to modern science.

  • 1-5 Identify milestones in psychology’s early development.

  • 1-6 Show how behaviorism, Freudian psychology, and humanistic psychology advanced psychological science.

Psychology Is a Science

  • Core claim: Psychology relies on systematic observation & experimentation; answers hinge on empirical evidence, not intuition.

  • James Randi’s aura-seer test exemplifies the principle: demand verifiable evidence before accepting claims.

    • Setup: Randi asks if aura can be seen when a magazine blocks his face; proposes hiding behind low wall.

    • Result: No claimant agreed to be tested → illustrates empirical falsification.

  • “The rat is always right” = respect for data. When observations contradict expectations, scientists revise theories rather than deny facts.

Scientific Attitude

  • Curiosity – “Does it work?”

    • Constantly forming questions & predictions.

  • Skepticism – “What do you mean? How do you know?”

    • Neither cynical (doubt everything) nor gullible (accept everything); requires evidence.

  • Humility – readiness to be surprised & follow new evidence.

    • Recognizes vulnerability to error; willing to discard cherished ideas.

  • Example Q’s generated by the attitude:

    • Can some people read minds? (ESP) – No evidence.

    • Do facial expressions influence feelings? – Supported by research.

    • Are stress levels related to health? – \text{Higher stress} \Rightarrow \text{poorer health}.

    • Do parental behaviors determine children’s sexual orientation? – Research says no.

Critical Thinking (CT)

  • Definition: Thinking that examines assumptions, appraises sources, uncovers hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

  • Formula: \text{Scientific Attitude} = \text{Curiosity} + \text{Skepticism} + \text{Humility} \;\Rightarrow\; \text{Critical Thinking}

  • CT Questions: How do they know? Agenda? Evidence vs. anecdote? Alternative explanations?

  • CT combats “gut intuition.” Examples:

    • Climate change arguments: CT demands longitudinal data (temperature, CO₂ trends) rather than isolated weather events.

  • Surprising empirical findings resulting from CT:

    • Massive early brain-tissue loss may have limited long-term impact.

    • Newborns recognize mother’s odor within days.

    • People can learn new skills after brain damage without conscious awareness (implicit learning).

    • Happiness levels similar across gender, age, SES, disability status.

    • Debunked myths: sleepwalkers ≠ acting out dreams; no mental videotape of entire past; opposites rarely attract; high self-esteem not universally beneficial.

Historical Foundations

  • Ancient Greece

    • Socrates & Plato: Mind ≠ body; knowledge innate.

    • Aristotle: Empiricist; knowledge grows from sensory experience.

  • 1600s Europe

    • René Descartes: Dualism; “animal spirits” travel through nerves causing reflexes.

    • Francis Bacon: Founder of modern science; noted tendency to perceive order in randomness.

    • John Locke: Mind at birth = tabula rasa; experience writes on it → forms modern empiricism.

Birth of Psychological Science

  • Wilhelm Wundt (University of Leipzig, 1879)

    • Created first psychology laboratory; measured reaction time between sound & key press.

    • Press when sound occurs ≈ 0.1\text{ s}.

    • Press when consciously aware ≈ 0.2\text{ s}.

    • Aimed to find “atoms of the mind.”

  • G. Stanley Hall (1883): Founded first U.S. lab at Johns Hopkins.

Early Schools of Thought

  • Structuralism (Wundt, Edward Bradford Titchener)

    • Method: Introspection → report immediate sensations, images, feelings while sensing stimuli.

    • Goal: Map elements of mind (mental “periodic table”).

    • Problems: Needed articulate participants; results unreliable; people often unaware of own processes.

  • Functionalism (William James, influenced by Darwin)

    • Focus: How mental & behavioral processes enable adaptation & survival.

    • Studied emotions, memories, habits, streams of consciousness.

    • Authored pioneering text Principles of Psychology (1890).

Pioneering Women in Psychology

  • Mary Whiton Calkins

    • Admitted to James’s Harvard seminar \text{(1890)}; outscored male peers on Ph.D. exams.

    • Denied Harvard Ph.D.; offered Radcliffe degree—refused.

    • 1905: First female APA president; notable memory researcher.

  • Margaret Floy Washburn

    • First official female Ph.D. (Cornell, advised by Titchener).

    • Wrote The Animal Mind; APA president 1921.

    • Barred from all-male Society of Experimental Psychologists.

  • Progress: From “male & pale” to women earning majority of psychology doctorates; Kenneth Clark became first African-American APA president 1971.

Behaviorism, Freudian, and Humanistic Psychology

  • Behaviorism (John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner; 1920s–1960s)

    • Redefined field as “scientific study of observable behavior.”

    • Rejected introspection; emphasized conditioning.

    • Famous study: Watson & Rayner’s “Little Albert” → demonstrated learned fear.

  • Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology

    • Sigmund Freud: Behavior shaped by unconscious drives & childhood experiences; introduced concepts of defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages.

  • Humanistic Psychology (1960s; Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)

    • Reacted against behaviorism/Freud’s limits.

    • Emphasized personal growth, self-actualization, and fulfillment.

Connections & Implications

  • Empiricism underlies modern research methods (experimentation, observation).

  • Scientific attitude + critical thinking inform daily decision making (health choices, policy).

  • Ethical & philosophical impact: Religious scientists (Copernicus, Newton) viewed investigation as honoring creation; modern thinkers echo value of curiosity (Carl Sagan quote).

  • Practical policy gains from research:

    • Crime deterrence: Increasing arrest probability > lengthening sentences.

    • Trauma recovery: Reliving trauma can be harmful; alternative approaches superior.

    • Voter turnout: Emphasizing peer voting rates boosts participation.

Exam Tips & Study Aids

  • AP® Exam: Questions favor research evidence over common sense; highlight scientific roots (Wundt’s lab).

  • Testing Effect: Self-quizzing (Check Your Understanding) improves retention.

  • Focus on significance, not just names. Example: What functionalism explains vs. who founded it.

  • FRQ practice: Be able to discuss contributions of James, Calkins, Washburn; explain scientific attitude.

Key Terms (selected)

  • Critical Thinking – evidence-based evaluation.

  • Empiricism – knowledge via experience + observation.

  • Behaviorism – study of observable behavior.

  • Humanistic Psychology – emphasis on growth potential.

  • Introspection – self-reflection to observe mental processes.

  • Structuralism / Functionalism – early theoretical frameworks.

Representative Data & Numbers

  • Wundt’s reaction-time findings: 0.1\text{ s} vs. 0.2\text{ s}.

  • Year landmarks: 1879 (first lab), 1890 (Principles of Psychology), 1905 (first female APA president), 1921 (second female APA president).

Mnemonic for Scientific Attitude: "Curious Scientists are Humble" (C-S-H).

End of notes – use as a standalone replacement for Module 1 reading.