-The tendency to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition, bc it's quick and we don't have the time to understand the situation

The effects of attribution

-social effects

-political effects

-workplace effects

We tend to view ourselves as mentally flexible and others as inflexible

Self-serving bias, a readiness to perceive oneself favorably, successful outcomes of one's behavior to internal causes, and unsuccessful outcomes to external situational causes

-common in individualistic cultures

Attitude

-is a belief and feeling that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way to objects, other people, and events. If we believe a person is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act in an unfriendly manner. How do we develop an attitude

Attitudes can affect action.

-Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, can also influence behavior

Social thinking

-behavior affected by our inner attitudes as well as by external social influences

Social comparison

upward, a natural human tendency to compare ourselves to others who are perceived to be better than ourselves, to evaluate one's abilities and standing

downward comparisons with a target that is considered inferior on the dimension of interest, and provides evidence that an individual is better than others

Social comparison

-the belief that a person will feel deprived or entitled to something based on the comparison to someone else

Self-fulfilling prophecies

-occurs when one person's belief about another leads one to act in ways that induce the other to confirm the belief

-what someone else thinks of you and how it changes the way you act

Attitudes can affect action

-not only do people stand for what they believe in, they start believing in what they stand for

-Cooperative actions can lead to mutual benefits

Attitudes

-set of beliefs and feelings

-Advertising is all based on attitude formation

Central route to persuasion

-occurs when people focus on the main/major arguments and offer arguments that aim to trigger favorable thoughts,- price, safety, for e, of a car

Peripheral route to persuasion

-occurs when incidental cues influence people and respond to those incidental cues, seat color and main stuff that isn't major

Foot in the door phenomenon

-The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Door in the face phenomenon

-The tendency for people who say no to a large request to comply with a smaller one

The reciprocity norm

-We feel obligated to return favors, even those we didn't want in the first place

The power of the role

A set of expectations about a social position

-defines how those in the position are expected to behave

Zimbardo prison study

Role-playing affects attitudes. What do you think happened when college students were made to take on the roles of prison guards and inmates? Guards were instructed to make prisoners feel frustrated and not in control.

Prisoners had no power, vs guards with all the power

Prisoners stage a rebellion on the 2nd day, the guards stepped up their harassment and treated rebellion ringleaders differently than the “good” prisoners

Told they couldn't leave

Guards' bullying tactics increased as they perceived prisoners to be a real threat.

-Everyone took the role to which they were assigned, the experiment became realistic, ended after 6 days instead of 2 weeks

-prisoners lost their identity

-Zimbardo concluded people quickly conformed to social roles, even when the role goes against their moral principles, situational factors were largely responsible for the behavior found, as none of the participants ever demonstrated these behaviors before

Abu Ghraib prison

-real life Zimbardo prison experiment

Actions can affect attitudes.

-Why do actions affect attitude? One explanation is that when our attitudes and actions are opposed, we experience tension, it's called cognitive dissonance. We bring our attitudes closer to our actions to relieve ourselves of this tension.

Cognitive dissonance theory

-feeling of discomfort created from a discrepancy between attitude and behavior, and they don't

match

People want to have consistent attitudes and behaviors, but when conflicted, they will usually change their attitude because it is more flexible.

Our thoughts abt others

-cognitive dissonance (cont)

-people are motivated to maintain consistency in their thoughts, feelings, actions,

Social influence

The greatest contribution of social psychology is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions, and the way they are molded by social influence.

Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance, obedience towards authority.

The chameleon effect

-unconsciously mimicking others' expressions, postures, voice tones

Suggestibility

-Is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behaviors or thinking towards some group standard

-adjust our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Solomon asch- hypothesis and methodology

-conformity experiment

-asked people a simple question

Asch's results

-to strengthen conformity

-Group is unanimous

Group is at least 3 people.

One admires the group's status.

One had made no prior commitment.

One is made to feel incompetent

Culture encourages respect for a particular standard

Conformity

-normative social influence

Conformity, when we want to avoid rejection or gain acceptance, so we join the crowd.

Reasons for conformity

-Normative social influence- influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval, ex, peer pressure

Informative social influence- influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality, coming from the desire to be correct, ex, you know something I don't, so I will do what you say.

Stanley Milgram

Hypothesis and methodology

-studies obedience and how people respond to orders from an authority figure

-real subjects were assigned the role of teacher

-looking at the obedience of the researcher

Milgram further findings

-Teachers are more likely to obey an authority figure from a prestigious institution

-more likely to obey instructions when the victim was at a distance and depersonalized

-more likely to obey without role models who defied the authority figure's order

-Obedience to authority can keep people from following their morals and standards

-ordinary people can perform cruelties in the process of obeying authority figures in their daily lives

-incrementally getting bigger and bigger shocks, not all at once, but foot in the door, don't make it seem as that much

-Individual resistance, a third of the individuals in Milgram's study resisted social coercion, unarmed individuals challenged a line of tanks at Tiananmen Square, 1989

Power of individuals, the power of social influence is enormous, but so is the power of the individual, non-violent fasts and appeals by Gandhi led to the independence of India from the British.

Participants were pressured to follow others' standards and be responsive

-In Milgram's study, participants were torn between hearing the victims' pleas and the experimenter's orders

In Asch's study, they were pressured by normative social influence to be like others

Group influence on behavior

-How do groups affect our behavior

Social facilitation refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others. Triplett 1898 noticed cyclists' race times were faster when they competed against others than when they just raced against the clock.

If you are good at something, or it is an easy task, you will perform better in front of a group

-If it is a difficult task, or you are not very good at it, you will perform worse in front of a group (social impairment)

Social loafing

-The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they were individually accountable

-delegate tasks, be clear, and set expectations to try and combat social loafing

Milgram-shocks

Asch-conformity-lines

Thorndike-law of effect

Deindividualization

-The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

-mob mentality

Groupthink

-Group members suppress reservations about the ideas supported by the group

-more concerned with group harmony and how the group thinks rather than what they think

-Worse in highly cohesive groups compared to conformity

Warning signs of groupthink

-illusion of invulnerability

-belief in the inherent group morality

-rationalization of group views

-Stereotyping of out groups

-self censorship (not challenged)

-direct pressure on dissenters

-self-appointed mindguards

Group polarization

-Diffusion of responsibility decreased the responsibility of action each member of a group feels when they are a part of a group

-Enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group can lead to extreme beliefs/actions

Module 77

prejudice and discrimination

Social relations

Prejudice

-unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group and its members

-involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminate actions (attitude)

Stereotype

-generalized, sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized belief about a group of people

Prejudice

1 beliefs stereotypes

2 emotions: hostility, envy, fear

3 predisposition to act discriminately

Means prejudgment usually directed toward different cultural, ethnic, gender

Discrimination is a negative behavior directed at members of a group, it is an action.

Racism

-negative actions toward an ethic group

Prejudice works at the conscious and unconscious levels; before, it was more like a knee-jerk reaction than a conscious decision.

Why does prejudice arise

1-social inequalities

2-social divisions

3-emotional scapegoating

4-ethnocentrism, assuming the superiority of one's ethnic group

Prejudice often develops when people have power, prestige, and others don't

-Social inequality increases prejudice and discrimination

In n out groups

Ingroup- people with whom we share a common identity

Outgroup- those perceived as different from one's group

Ingroup bias

Tendency to favor one's group

Combating prejudice

-contact theory

-Contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity if they are made to work towards a superordinate goal

Sherif camp study

Social identity and cooperation

-Social identity theory, states that when you're assigned to a group, you automatically think of the group as an in-group for you

Robbers Cave

-Overcoming the strong we/they affect

-establishment of superordinate goals

-ex: breakdown in camp water supply, or food truck stuck

-Overcoming intergroup strife- research

-Stereotypes are diluted when people share individuating information

Mirror image perceptions

-Psychologists have noted that those in conflict have a curious tendency to form diabolical images of one another

-as we see them as evil and untrustworthy, so they see us as demonizing each other

Categorization

-We tend to categorize people into groups, often stereotype them, may contain the trust, but it biases our perceptions

-We view ourselves as individuals, but we overestimate the similarity of people within groups other than our own, they seem to look and act alike, but we seem diverse

Other race effect

-The tendency to recall faces of one's race more accurately than faces of other races

Just world phenomenon

-The tendency of people to believe the world is just, and people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

-It leads to blaming the victim, explaining others' misfortunes as their fault

Module 80

Altruism

Peacemaking

Altruism

Actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit

Kitty genovese

-Why didn't Kitty Genovese's neighbor call the police earlier, or help her in some way before it was too late

Prosocial behaviors

Bystander effect: “I'm sure someone else would do it”

-conditions where people are more or less likely to help others, in general, the more people who are around, the less chance of help, bc of a diffusion of responsibility

Pluralistic ignorance

-people decide what to do by looking at others

Darley and Latane

-What are the circumstances under which people are more likely to help someone in need

How can we increase helping

-assign responsibility

-reduce ambiguity

-increase societal rewards

You are more likely to help if

-We've observed helpfulness

-If we aren't hurried

-We think the victim is similar to us

-We are feeling guilty

-We are not preoccupied

-We don't perceive danger

-We identify with the victim

-we know how to help

The norms for helping

Social exchanges theory

-Our social behaviors are an exchange process, the aim is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity norm

-The expectation that we should return help and not harm those who have helped us

Social responsibility norm

-largely learned it is a norm that tells us to help others when they need us, even though they may not repay us

Social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behaviors

Peacemaking

Superordinate goals

-are shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation (the Sherif experiments)

Communication

-and understanding developed through talking to one another

Conciliation

-allows both parties to take small steps to try and understand the other side

Graduated reciprocated initiatives in tension reductions GRIT

-Designed to decrease international tensions, 1 side takes a small step and the other side takes small steps

Aggression

-can be any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy, it may be done out of hostility or a knee-jerk reaction, emerges from biology and experience

Genetic influence

Neural influences

-some center in the brain, especially the limbic system, the amygdala, and the frontal lobe

Biochemical influences

-animals with diminished amounts of test become diesel and if infected with test aggression increases (roid rage lmao)

Aggression and violence

-people interpret similar situations as peaceful or violent

Culture and aggression

-America has a very high murder rate, which is 7-10, higher than Europe

-ages of 15-24 homicide

-Social factors in aggression set by middle childhood, some males are conditioned to be masculine bc of their aggressive behaviors condoned through adolescence

-Deindividuation, loss of identity as a result of being in a group

-In a group, individuals feel less responsible, more power, and less vulnerability, called the risky shift phenomenon, mob actions

Acquiring social scripts

-The media portrays social scripts and generates mental tapes in the minds of the viewers, when confronted with new situations

Psychology of aggression

frustration aggression principle

-the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal

-creates anger which generates aggression

-learning to express and inhibit aggression

-When people become increasingly involved in violent fights at school bc this gains them the attention and respect of many of their classmates, this is that aggression is a learned response

Module 79 attraction

-5 factors of attraction

1 Proximity

-we tend to like and get to know the ppl around us, geographical nearness, mere exposure effect

2 reciprocal liking

-we are more likely to like someone who likes you

3 similarity

-similar views among individuals causes the bond of attractions to strengthen, birds of a feather flock together, conversation start

4 liking through association

-classical conditioning can play a part in attraction

5 Physical attractiveness

-The hotty factors, dating frequency, they date more, perceived as healthier