Untitled Flashcards Set

 HIPP

Historical Context:

• How does the information from this source help me prove my argument

  • Think about what specifically led to the creation of the source or , makes it significant 

Intended Audience:

•  Its how and why it's for the audience

Purpose:

•  What is the author trying to do in this source 

  •  Persuade, convince, refute ,urge, respond to critics, energize supporters

POV:

• Analyze how the author's pov impacts their message

1. Elizabeth 1- Unification 

2. Religious wars are over(King Henry split from the catholic church)

Primogeniture- Oldest son inherits land 

Enclosure movement- Landed Gentry closes off land peasants kicked off (¾ of the population) 

Aristocrat- wealthy landowners

Gentry-Own joint stock company 

• Indentured servants 

• Work and home-England is overcrowded 

• Contract workers whose journey is paid for by gentry

Jews Quakers, Puritans, Catholics, Pilgrims-

• Religious Freedom

• Religious Freedom

• Accepted immigrants and sexes from all countries 

• Colonies Based on 

Revolution: The Americans didn’t have to win, they just couldn’t give up. 

1. Causes of the American Revolution 

1. Enlightenment

2. Taxation with representation

3. Boston massacre 

4. Tea Party 

5. Intolerable Act

• Leading to the Declaration of Independence, and Sons of Liberty.

    2.   People to know 

1. Montesquieu = Enlightenment thinker 

2. Thomas Paine= Enlightenment thinker, “Common sense”

3. John Locke = Enlightenment thinker,

4. John Adams = second president of the USA

5. John Hancock

6. Thomas Jefferson

7.  Samuel Adams = Enlightenment thinker,” The Rights of Colonists”

8. Ben Franklin =

Sons of Liberty = American terrorist group

Sons of Liberty:

• John Adams

• Paul Revere

• Samuel Adams

Maximilien Robespierre gets a copy of the declaration of independence, leading to the french revolution.

Articles of Confederation:

1. First form of government

2. Failure

   1. No Power to Tax

   2. All 13 States needed to amend it

3. Success-

   1. Civic Virtue (Republicanism

   2. Land Transfer Act -1783 

• Northwest Ordinance - 1787( established how states are made) 

4. Shays Rebellion Turning Point - 

• Daniel Shay was force to sell land to pay off debt 

• Many farmers lost their farms or faced imprisonment

• The rebels stormed the armory in springfield ended with the two ring leaders being hung and massachusetts giving more time for the farmers to pay off their debt

Republican motherhood(how women would be treated basically housewives)

5. New Jersey Plan Vs Virginia Plan

Washington and Adams:

• Washington is the First and Only President to be Unanimously Elected

• It begins by establishing The Cabinet.  

  • The primary goal, help the President make important executive decisions

  • Sec. of State- Jefferson 

  • Sec. of Treasury- Hamilton 

  • Sec. of War- Knox

• The Judicial Branch

  • Judiciary Act-1789- Sets up the Judicial Branch.

  • Supreme Court- Checks and Balances 

Hamilton’s Financial Plan:

• Government will pay off National debt at 100% at par (full plus interest) 

•  Federal Government will pay off the State Debts (Loyalty)

  • South only agreed because Federal district move South

• Tariff (1789)- 8% (tax on imports/exports)  

• Excise Tax ****- Luxury Goods –whiskey tax 

• National Bank****

  • Print Money, Crush Inflation.  

Marbury vs madison= judicial review

Jeffersonian-Democratic-Republicans Strong States:

• Pro French 

• Aquarian Society 

• Strict Construction 

• Anti Bank 

Federalist: 

• Strong National Gov 

• Pro-British 

• Pro Industry 

• Loose Construction- Implied Powers (necessary and Proper Clause) 

• Pro Bank 

Whiskey Rebellion:

• The Excise tax (Whiskey) Hurt the western Pennsylvania Farmers

  • Used extra grain to turn into whiskey and used as currency. 

• Sledge Hammer vs the Gnat

• Proved a Strong Executive is Good

• Washington lead the troops for a little while.

• Neutrality Proclamation 1793****** Precedent******

  • Promises Neutrality in war between France and Brittan provides some aid to France 

  • Brits impress our soldiers and supply Natives 

• Battle of Fallen Timbers- 

  • Little Turtle and the Miami Confederacy loose to Mad Anthony Wayne.

• Leads to Treaty of Greenville 1795

  • Americans get land and right to hunt for 20,000 up front and 9,000 a year. 

• Pinckney's Treaty 1796 (Spain) 

  • Free Negotiation of the Mississippi 

  • Right to Deposit in New Orleans 

  • Part of Western Florida.  

• Jays Treaty- 1794

  • Washington sends John Jay to England to discuss the ending of Impressments and removal of troops from the West.  

  • Brits promise to evacuate the frontier (they don’t)

  • Brits Promise to repay the damages to ships (they Don’t) 

  • Americans Pay back the pre-revolutionary war debt and gain “most favored nation status”

• HIGHLY UNPOPULAR***** 

One of the only mistakes Washington Made.   

John Adams 1796-1800

• Defeats Thomas Jefferson in the election of 1796

• Federalist. (Pro British/Bank/Industry/National>States)

• Impressment (taking of soldiers)

• Xyz affair - 1797

• John Marshall and 2 others go to France to discuss stop seizure of ships

Quasi-War:

• Undeclared war with France

• Create the Department of the Navy

• Fighting done at sea

Alien and Sedition Act:

• Alien Laws-1798 (Never Enforced) 

  • They could be deported if deemed dangerous by Presidents. 

  • Federalists raised naturalization requirements from 5 to 14. 

• Sedition Act-1799 

  • Anyone who talked badly about the President would be imprisoned. Hurts Adams as a President.

John Adams presidency in a nutshell:

• Quasi (aka overseas) War (America vs France)

  • A Lot of Smack Talk by newspapers. —--> Alien sedition Acts

  • 14 years of citizenship

  • Allows the president to jail anyone talking crap

  • Undeclared war with france

  • Creates the department of the Navy

• This leads to

  • Nullification 

• Which leads to

  • VA(Virgina) and  KY(Kentucky) resolutions 

Jefferson's Presidency

• Jefferson is a Strict Constructionist

• The Constitution does not expressly give the federal government the power to buy land.

• He Must Use Implied Powers 

(the necessary and proper clause) to justify the purchase.

• Federalists attack Jefferson for being a hypocrite by stretching the Constitution to justify his purchase.

  • Corps of Discovery

  • Impressments( recruitment by force)

Embargo Act leads to civil war and 

The era of good Feelings…?

Henry clay “Bit America”

B.I.T(Banks, 

• Proposed by Henry Clay- 1815

• Called for Internal Improvements 

  • Development of roads and canals to link the country together 

• Extension of the national bank 

  • Easy and abundant credit 

  • Leads to land speculation (over speculation is cause of every major Economic Crisis)  

• Protective Tariff

  • Raises Hamilton's from 8% to 20-25%

• New National Capitol-Built by Pierre L’Enfant 

• New National Literature (Knicker-bocker movement)

  • James Fennimore Cooper 

  • Washington Irving 

• Hudson River School (Art) 

 JAMES MONROE 5^TH PRESIDENT

• Last of Virginia Dynasty 

• Ushers in the “Era of Good Feelings” going on a tour of Federalist Boston

• Appoints John Quincy Adams Sec of state: Makes Great Diplomatic Decisions 

• His second election: 

  • Only President to ever be elected following a Economic Crisis

  • Won every vote but one.  

PANIC OF 1819 

• Caused by tariff, bank, sale of lands (Land Act of 1920), internal improvements 

  • OVERSPECULATION 

  • Wildcat banks handed out too many loans= bankruptcy. 

  • ***Western Landowners hate the National Bank

WESTWARD EXPANSION

• 9 states join Union from 1792-1820 due to 

  1. Immigrants to Ohio- Land Transfer and Land Ordinance

  2. Soil Butchery 

  3. Land speculation 

  4. Indians Gone 

  5. Embargo 

  6. Technology developments – Cumberland Road, Canals, Steam Boat (Clermont- Robert Fulton )

  7. Land Act 1820- Buy up 80 acres at 1.25 an acre

Leads to problems involving expansion of slavery.  

(Basically just the government arguing who becomes a slave state a non slave state. “No this is a slave state. No this isn’t a slave state” type argument)

• Rush-Bagot Treaty-1817- Britain- 

  • Demilitarized the Great Lakes 

• Anglo-American Convention- 1818 (Britain and Canada)- 

  • Fishing on in Newfoundland 

  • established 49^th parallel 

• Adams –Onis Treaty 1819-

  • America gets Florida 

  • Spain gets part of Texas 

  • Western border is settled at 42 parallel 

• Russo-American-1824 

  • Established Russia’s boundary at 54,40

MONROE DOCTRINE

• Written by John Q Adams 

• Warns European Powers to stay out of western Hemisphere

• NONCOLONIZATION! 

• NONINTERVENTION! 

**Could not be enforced- Greatest Bluff In American History.  

Election of 1824

• Andrew Jackson - Battle of New Orleans (Finishes 1st)

• Henry Clay holds the title of speaker of the house (Finishes 3rd but almost dies) 

  • Clay controls the outcome as Speaker Of The House 

  • Clay wants to be Sec. Of State. 

  • Clay goes to JQA and tells Clay “YES”

  • J.Q.A= President Clay= Sec of State.

  • This election turns into the Corrupt Bargain of 1824

  • Andrew Jackson creates the Democratic Party

  • Whigs V Democratic 

• William Crawford- Secretary of Treasury (Finished 4th)

• John Quincy Adams (J.Q.A)-Secretary of State (Finishes 2nd)

Presidents - Secretary of State 

• Washington-Thomas Jefferson

• Adams-john Marshall

• Thomas Jefferson - James Madison 

• Madison - Monroe

• Monroe - J.Q.A.

• Usually puts the secretary of state into the presidency later

• 1826- Democrats won the entire congress 

• After Jackson's inauguration, Jackson decided to show patronage to those who sported.  

• Many of the federal workers and appointees have been in their positions under Madison and Jackson wanted new faces in the federal bureaucracy

• Jackson Fired them and replaced them with his friends and cronies.  

1828- Tariff of abominations is passed 

John C Calhoun Writes the South Carolina Exposition 

• If the tariff was not repealed, then South Carolina Would secede

1829- Webster- Hayne Nullification debate (in the Senate) 

• Breaks union between the West and the South, South Carolina only nulli state left. 

1830- “Our Union, it much be preserved”- Jackson 

• “Union next to liberty is most dear” –Calhoun

1832- Tariff of 1832- Lowers duty rate to 35% 

• South Carolina Still mad- Meets at the SC Nullification Convention

• Nullify both tariffs (ordinance of Nullification)- “We will resists, we might leave” 

1833- Force Bill- give federal government to use the military to enforce states to follow laws and tariffs

1833- Compromise Tariff- lowers 10% over 8 years

Nullification compromise- repeals ordinance of nullification, accepts compromise tariff and nullifies the force act.   

Significance of the Nullification Crisis:

1. States' Rights vs. Federal Power:

   • The crisis was a key moment in the ongoing debate over the balance of power between the states and the federal government. It highlighted the tensions between state sovereignty and the need for a strong national government.

2. Precursor to the Civil War:

   • Although the crisis was resolved peacefully, the issues of states' rights and secession would re-emerge in the lead-up to the American Civil War. The Nullification Crisis demonstrated how deeply divided the nation was over these questions, particularly with regards to the economy and slavery.

3. Andrew Jackson’s Leadership:

   • The crisis solidified Andrew Jackson’s reputation as a defender of the Union. His willingness to use force if necessary to uphold federal law underscored the federal government’s commitment to preserving national unity.

4. Calhoun’s Influence:

   • John C. Calhoun’s advocacy for nullification and states' rights laid the intellectual groundwork for Southern political theory, which would later be used to justify secession during the Civil War.

In sum, the Nullification Crisis was a significant test of the U.S. Constitution's ability to balance state and federal powers and foreshadowed the larger conflict that would eventually culminate in the Civil War.

Martin Van Buren

• Democrat (“Jackson’s Favorite”) – Jackson’s VP in 1832 election and then won as president in 1836

• "Little Magician“ & “Old Kinderhook” (He’s OK)  OK!

• Late called Martin Van Ruin due to financial crises:

  •  “Panic of 1837” – Jackson’s policy of ending the national bank and putting money in state banks caused widespread speculation on land due to easy bank credit and inflation.  

  • To end this speculation, Jackson in 1836 required that lands be purchased with hard money--gold or silver.

  • People attempted to cash in paper money for hard money.  Hundreds of banks and businesses failed. Thousands of farmers lost their lands. For about five years the United States was wracked by the worst depression thus far in its history.

  • Van Buren cut off expenditures so completely that the Government even sold the tools it had used on public works.

William Henry Harrison

• Whig Party.  Blamed Van Buren for the financial problems of the country.

• Modern campaigning:  

  • “Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too”

  • Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign -said he was the “common man” who would like nothing better than to drink hard cider in a long cabin, not sip expensive Champagne like Martin Van Buren (but not really b/c Harrison lived in a mansion!)

•  Caught Pneumonia due to a 2 hour long inaugural speech in the rain.

•  Died after 30 days in office

John Tyler

• Whig Party

• “His Accidency” (because only became president upon Harrison’s death)

• Rejected Whig Policies!

  • vetoed National Bank which infuriated Henry Clay

  • All the Cabinet resigned except for Secretary of State DanielWebster. 

  • Tyler replaced the original Whig Cabinet with southern conservatives, committed to the preservation of states' rights, planter interests, and the institution of slavery. 

  • Whigs became more representative of northern business and farming interests.

  • Tyler vetoed a tariff bill

    • The Whigs in Congress tried to impeach him but failed

• "Log-Cabin" bill enabled a settler to claim 160 acres of land before it was offered publicly for sale, and later pay $1.25 an acre for it.

• Later signed a tariff bill protecting northern manufacturers.

• 1842:  Webster-Ashburton treaty ended a Canadian boundary dispute

• Annexed Texas in 1845

Xenophobia 

• Created- Nativism- anti immigration- immigrants would out-vote, outbreed, and overwhelm old stock Americans.  

  • Immigrants took the nativist jobs and were the wrong religions 

• Formed the Order of the Star Spangled Banner Party (Know Nothings)

  • Stricter immigration/naturalization laws 

  • Created and Sold nativist propaganda

Effects of the Industrial Revolution 

• Growth of cotton, slavery, and sectionalism (Industry in North) 

• Advancements- 

  • Sewing Machines-Isacc Singer 

  • Patten office 

  • Limited Liability Corporations (provided Capitol) 

  • Steel Plow- John Deer 

  • Mechanical Reaper- Cyrus McCormick   

• Samuel B. Morse- Telegraph 

  • Washington to Baltimore- “What Hath God Wrought” 

  • Links the country together physically 

How TEXAS became it’s own state:

• Mexico won independence from Spain (1824)

• Co

• Steven F. Austin invited into Texas (1825)

• Sets up a community of 300 settlers (1825)

• 4 laws passed by Mexico the effect with Texas and Tejanos (1830)

• ALL TEXANS MUST

• 1. Must learn Spanish

• 2. Must convert to catholicism

• 3. Ban Slavery

• 4. Citizenship 

• Mexico start taxing Texans (1832)

• Steven Austin was jailed for trying to negotiate with officials (1835)

• 1836 is the year of the Texas Revolution 

• Texas declares independence ¨Republic of Texas” (1836)

• Sam Houston Becomes president. (1836)

• Battle of Alamo (1836)

•  ¨Remember the Alamo¨  - San Jacinto (1836)

Manifest Destiny:

John L O’sullivan= 

Election: 1844: Polk v Clay “Who is James K Polk”

Texas became the Issue- Clay gets confused

Clay loses due to New York and Conscious Whigs, Liberty Party, Free Soil Party

4 Points:

1. Restoration of independent Treasury (Divorce Bill) 

2. Walker Tariff-1846- 25%

3. Acquisition of California 

4. Settlement of Oregon Dispute (54 40 or fight) 

    54 40 or fight and california 

Polk sends John Slidell to Mexico city to buy california for 25 million 

           Mexican American war

• Steven Kearney 🡪 Santé Fe 

• John C Fremont 🡪 Bear Flag Republic 

• Zachary Taylor🡪 Buena Vista 

• Winfield Scott🡪 Mexico City- End of War 

• Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo- 1848 (war lasts 2 years)

  • Mexico Must accept the Rio Grande as border 

  • US Earns 50% of Mexico (Mexican Cession) 

  • US pays- 15 million to Mexico for California     

  • US pays 3.25 million to American Citizens 

• 1848-Election of popular sovereignty

  • Zachary Taylor Vs Lewis Cass

• Problems facing the south in 1850 

  •  California wants to enter as a free state

  •  Harriet Tubman

  •  Abolitionist 

• Compromise of 1850-Clay 

  • California enters as a free state

  • Popular sovereignty will decide slavery in the land required for NM and Utah 

  • Texas gets 10 million in Compensation 

  • Slave trade is abolished in DC 

  • New Harsh Fugitive Slave Act 

  • Massachusetts Nullifies the FSA and enact Personal liberty laws 

    • Against the Law to Capture slaves 

    • Although other states ignore the FSA but don’t nullify or enact personal liberty laws

  • Election of 1852:

    • Whigs: Winfield Scott

    • Dem- Franklin Pierce- Pro Slavery, Northern Democrat

    • Pierce- 254 to 42 

  • Whig party fall 

  • apart due to slavery

• Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) – told of the horrors and cruelty of slavery; humanized slaves & changed outlook of many Northerners

• Banned in most southern states

International Growth

• 1853- Commodore Matthew Perry sail to Japan 

  • Opens Up trade with Japan

  • Empire of Japan Treaty- 1854 (Treaty of Kanagawa) 

• 1854- Ostend Manifesto 

  • US tries to buy Cuba from Spain or War.  

  • South wants to create 5 new slave states

  • Free spoilers find out, leading to it failing.  

• 1853- Gadsden Purchase 

  • US Buys land from Mexico next to Texas, 

  • Needed for a transcendental railroad 

• Clayton- Bulwer treaty- 1850- US and Brits

  • Not to seek exclusive control of the canal or territory on either side of such a canal

  • Not to fortify any position in the canal area

  • Not to establish colonies in Central America

• Treaty if Wanghia- 1844

  • 1^st diplomatic agreement between US and China 

  • Opens trade and Immigration between the two countries.  

Kansas Nebraska Act- 1854

• Stephen Douglas- wants the transcendental railroad to run through Chicago 

  • Needs the Kansas and Nebraska Territory organized

  • Proposes- Popular Sovereignty for Kansas and Nebraska territories

  • Appeals to the south

• Goes against the Missouri Compromise.  

Republican party:

• No more Expansion Slavery

• Pro American System

  • BANK/Tariffs

• Industry

  • Northern

• Immigration Reform 

  • Know Nothing

• Homestead Act/Transcontinental railroad 

Dred Scott: #WOW #Slavepower 

Rodger Taney rules:

1. Scott still a slave under Missouri Law 

2. No slaves or descendants are citizens🡪 Cant sue in court 

3. Constitution doesn’t apply to black people (inferior)  

4. 5^th amendment protect property🡪 Emanate Domaine

5. Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional 

6. Congress cannot regulate slavery in territories regardless of popular sovereignty  

• 7 democrats, 1 whigs, and 1 republican on the SC (vote went 7 for 2 against.  

Reconstruction:

• Political Parties of the North 

  • Northern Democrats Split following the death of Stephen Douglas

  • War Democrats and Peace Democrats 

  • War= Support Lincoln 

  • Peace= want war to end- extremist were the Copperheads 

• Republicans joined with the War Democrats and created the Union Party.

• ELECTION OF 1864:

  • Lincoln vs McClellan 

  • Lincoln wins 

  • VP a Southern War Democrat 

• Souths last chance at victory in War, Lincoln loses, begins peace talks.

• PROBLEMS FOLLOWING THE WAR:

  • How does the US physically rebuild the south? 

    • Billions of Dollars worth of Damage. 

  • How do we help the newly freed slaves 

    • 4 million freed slaves 

  • How do we politically reunite the Country 

    • Just let the Confederates back in to Congress? 

  • Who will lead the process of unification (Reconstruction) 

    • President or Congress 

  • Two groups will emerge during reconstruction Moderate 

  • Republicans (painless and swift) 

  • vs Radical Republicans (Punish the South- protect blacks)

• RECONSTRUCTION PLANS:

• Lincoln- 10% plan- State will be allowed back into the Union once 10% of voters take an oath back to the US.  

  • States would be in control of freedman's laws as long as they are not returned to bondage 

  • Lincoln never saw the Confederates as its own country, just an illegal government 

• Wade Davis Bill- 1864

  • Raised to 50% Lincoln pocket vetoed it.  

  • Republicans thought the South would enslave again 

Sadly for Lincon, he got assassinated in 1865 and his plan goes to Andrew Johnson

• JOHNSON RECONSTRUCTION PLAN:

• Johnson adds to the 10% Plan: 

  • 13^th Amendment- Bans Slavery 

  • Rich Southerners cannot vote- can ask for a pardon 

  • Ordinary Southerners can ask for a pardon 

  • Special Conventions must meet to repudiate secessions and the Confederate debt.  

• Dec 6^th 1865- Johnson announces reconstruction is over.  

• By 1866- Johnson and Radical Republicans are at a political war 

• RECONSTRUCTION IN THE HANDS OF…?:

• Radical Republicans wanted to protect blacks 

1. States were passing black codes: reestablishing slave work 

2. Tenet farming and share cropping became the norm for blacks

3. 12🡪 South gains 12 more votes in Congress because of repeal of 3/5ths compromise 

4. Johnson veto's Freedman's Bureau- passes anyway (override) 

5. Civil Rights Bill of 1866- Grants freed slaves citizenship. 

   1. Democrats in the south could repeal it 

   2. Leads to 14^th amendment.- Birthright Citizenship

RADICAL REPUBLICANS - HELPING BLACKS:

• Freedman's Bureau- 1866- Help blacks and poor whites.  Greatest advancements in education.  

• Union League- Group in the North, move south to help blacks get into the political arena  

• Exodusters- 1877 Blacks that headed west (Kansas) following the end of Reconstruction 

MILITARY RECONSTRUCTION 1867:

• 1866- Congressional Elections- Radical Republicans take control of Congress 

  • Led in the Senate by Charles Sumner 

  • Led in the House by Thaddeus Stevens

• Pass the Military Reconstruction Act- 1867

  • Divides South into 5 military districts.

  • Congress now in charge of Reconstruction

IMPEACHMENT OF JOHNSON:  

• 1867- Tenure of Office Act 

  • The president must get the consent of Senate before removing any appointees 

  • Johnson fires Edwin Stanton- a spy for Republicans 

  • Leads to impeachment by the house for “High Crimes and Misdemeanors”

• Saved by 1 vote, but that is the end of his presidency.

RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION:

• As reconstruction continued, Yankees took advantage of the South, they were known as Carpetbaggers: 

  • Northerners who exploited the south during reconstruction 

  • Scallywags- southerners who took advantage of the destroyed south. 

• Republicans set up “Radical Regimes” that took advantage of the South.  

  • They rose to power through voter fraud and were extremely corrupt.    

SOUTHERN RESPONSE:

• In response to the corruptness, southerners formed the KKK.

  • Their job was to terrorize anyone who would not vote for the democratic party. 

  • Hated freedmen, Catholics, Carpetbaggers

• Congress passes the Force Acts, in order to fight the KKK, it was unsuccessful.   

• After the Election of1873 the Southern Democrats were granted amnesty and they began to vote out the Radical Regimes and replaced them with REDEMER GOVERNMENTS 

Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction

• Election of 1876: Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) vs. Samuel Tilden (Democrat).

  • No candidate received the necessary electoral votes.

  • The election went to the House, which couldn’t decide on a winner.

  • Electoral Commission created to decide the outcome: 8 Republicans and 7 Democrats.

• Outcome:

  • Republicans gained control of the White House (Hayes became president).

  • In return, Republicans agreed to end Military Reconstruction.

  • Federal troops withdrawn from the South.

  • Ushered in the Jim Crow Era, with racial segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans.

Gilded Age Overview

• Period marked by economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, but also corruption and social inequality.

• Key Features:

  • Big business boom: Expansion of industries like steel, oil, and railroads.

  • Immigration: Massive influx of immigrants fueled the labor force.

  • Population tripled.

  • Urbanization and rapid city growth.

Economic Events of the Gilded Age

1. “Black Friday” Scandal (1869):

   • Jay Gould and James Fisk bought large quantities of gold and lobbied President Grant to halt Treasury gold sales.

   • Gold prices soared, then crashed when the Treasury resumed sales, causing a market collapse.

2. Panic of 1893:

   • Severe economic depression caused by over-speculation and railroad bankruptcies.

Political Corruption and Machines

• Widespread Local Corruption:

  • Dominated by political machines like Tammany Hall in NYC.

  • “Boss” Tweed: Leader of Tammany Hall from 1858–1871, infamous for graft and embezzlement.

Gilded Age Presidency

• Begins with Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881): Marks the start of the era of “Forgotten Presidents.”

• Presidents often overshadowed by Congress and big business.

  1. James A. Garfield (1881): Assassinated shortly after taking office.

  2. Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885): Advocated for civil service reform with the Pendleton Act.

  3. Grover Cleveland (1885–1889, 1893–1897): First Democrat since the Civil War; emphasized reducing corruption.

  4. Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893): Signed the McKinley Tariff and admitted six new states into the Union.

Industrial Growth and the Impact of Railroads

• Railroads unified the domestic market:

  • Enabled mass distribution of raw materials and manufactured goods.

  • Promoted growth in industries like steel and coal.

  • Created time zones to standardize schedules.

• Government Regulation of Railroads:

  • Issues:

    • Rebates (discounts) favored big shippers over small farmers.

    • Farmers charged higher rates.

    • “Pools”: Secret agreements to fix rates and share profits.

  • Grange Movement: Farmers organized to push for reform.

  • Wabash Case (1886): Supreme Court ruled that states couldn’t regulate interstate commerce, limiting state-level reforms.

Rise of Industry

• Rapid industrialization transformed the economy.

• Growth driven by technological innovation, factory systems, and an abundant labor force.

• Laissez-Faire Economics: Minimal government interference in business.

This approach fostered a competitive environment, allowing businesses to thrive and expand without regulatory constraints.