Ground School - Air Law

Terminology

Visual Flight Rules: the rules that apply when flying with visual reference of the ground

Instrument Flight Rules: the rules that apply when flying in reference to the instruments in the cockpit

Special Visual Flight Rules: the rules when operating under weather conditions that do not meet VFR within a control zone

Visibility: the ability, as determined by atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted objects by night

Ceiling: the lowest height at which a broken or overcast condition exists, or the vertical visibility when an obscured condition such as snow, smoke, or fog exists, whichever is lower

Flight Visibility: average range of visibility of any given time from cockpit

Ground Visibility: visibility from aerodrome reported by ATC, flight service station, etc

Day/Daylight: time between beginning of morning civil twilight and the end of evening

Night: time between end of evening civil twilight and beginning of morning civil twilight 

Civil Twilight: when centre of sun’s disc is less than 6 degrees below horizon

Logging of Flights

Every pilot + student must keep a personal logbook that is up to date in order to track experience and recency.

Flight Time: total time from moment aircraft moves using its own power to its rest (used in pilot’s logbook)

Air Time: when aircraft leaves surface to time it lands (entered into aircraft technical records and used to determine when inspection needed)

Personal Log Includes:

• Pilot’s name

• Date of flight

• Type of aircraft and registration markings

• Flight crew position

• Flight conditions (night, day, VFR, etc)

• Flight time

• Method of launch used (for gliders)

• Place of departure + arrival (for aeroplanes)

• All intermediate take-offs and landings (for aeroplanes)

Never make an entry in a personal logbook unless it’s yours or you have permission to do so. 

ATC Clearances and Instructions

ATC Clearance: authorization from ATC that aircraft can proceed within controlled airspace and under specified conditions

ATC Instructions: directive issued by ATC for ATC purposes, pilots should comply

Visual Light Signals

• Visual light signals given if ATC cannot communicate with aircraft to give instructions and clearance

Ground:

Series of Green Flashes: cleared to move on ground (taxi)

Steady Green Light: cleared for takeoff

Series of Red Flashes: landing area in use

Steady Red Light: stop

Flashing White Light: return to starting point at airport

Blinking Runway Lights: vehicles and pedestrians vacate immediately

In Flight:

Series of Green Flashes: return to landing

Steady Green Light: cleared for landing

Series of Red Flashes: airport is unsafe, do not land

Steady Red Light: give way to other aircraft and keep circling

Firing of Red Pyrotechnical Light: do not land for time being (only at military control towers)

401.03 Licensing and Documentation

License Validity

Cannot act as aircrew unless:

• You have appropriate permit, license, rating

• Permit, license, rating are valid

• You have valid medical certificate

• You can produce it

To use license, you must have met three recency requirements:

• Complete one of the following

• Have acted as pilot in command or co-pilot in last five years

• Have completed flight review with instructor in last twelve months

• Complete recurrent training program within last 2 years

• If you want to carry passengers, you must have completed the following within the last six months

• At least 5 take offs and landings in the same category and class of aircraft OR

• For glider pilots, as an alternative: two take offs and two landings in a glider with an instructor and obtained certification of competence to carry passengers in your logbook

• Medical Examination must be done by a Civil Aviation Medical Examiner (CAME)

• Valid medical certificate required to exercise privilege of license

• Glider pilot’s certificate valid for 60 months regardless of age

• Private pilot’s medical certificate is valid for 60 months if you are less than 40 years old, and for 24 months if you are 40 years old or over

• Ministry may require you at any time to be re-examined regardless of when you underwent your last medical exam

• Validity period is calculated from the 1st day of the month following your medical exam

Privileges of Pilot’s License and Prohibitions

Privileges

• Under day VFR, licensed glider pilot can:

• Act PIC without passengers

• Act as PIC with passengers if the pilot is endorsed for the launch method and has flown at least 3 solo flights with that launch method

• Act as PIC or co-pilot of any aircraft for the purpose of flight training or flight test as long as they are supervised by a flight instructor and no passengers are carried

Prohibitions

• Pilot may not exercise privileges if:

• One of the following would impact their ability

• Illness, injury, disability

• Taking a drug

• Receiving medical treatment

• They were involved in aircraft accident due to the above

• They are in the 30th week of pregnancy, or gave birth in the last six weeks

Requests for the Production of Documents

In Canada, individuals must produce aviation documents, records, or other related papers upon request by a peace officer, immigration officer, or the Minister. 

Inspection After Abnormal Occurrences

• Following an abnormal occurrence the aircraft must be inspected for damage prior to its next flight.

• If the inspection does not involve disassembly, it may be performed by the pilot-in-command.

• Examples of abnormal occurrences: overspeeds, heavy/hard landings, propellor strikes, flights in severe turbulence

Requirement to Keep Technical Records

• Every owner of an aircraft shall keep the following technical records in respect of the aircraft:

• a journey log;

• a separate technical record for the airframe, each installed engine, and each variable-pitch 

• propeller; and

• an empty weight and balance report.

• In the case of a balloon or glider, all entries in respect of the technical records referred to in paragraphs above may be kept in the journey log

Technical Records (Log) - General

• The CARs state that every person who makes an entry in a technical record shall:

• make the entry accurately, legibly and in a permanent manner

• write their name, sign and date the entry

• The aircraft owner shall protect the record from damage or loss

• Every person who starts a new technical logbook, shall bring forward the necessary entries from the old logbook to ensure that an unbroken chronological record is maintained

• To correct a technical record, strike out the incorrect entry, insert the correct one, and document the change with your name, signature, date, and reason for correction.

Journey Log Requirements

• No person shall make a single entry in a journey log in respect of a series of flights unless:

• the aircraft is operated by the same pilot-in-command throughout the series, or

• a daily flight record is used (e.g., CFTC timesheet)

• The owner of an aircraft shall retain every entry in a journey log for a period of not less than one year

• The daily flight record must be retained for at least two years

Journey Log - Carrying on Board

• Aircraft must carry a journey log onboard unless the flight plan returns to the departure point without shutting down

• In the case of gliders, this can be interpreted as the intent to land

Liability Insurance

• No aircraft owner shall operate an aircraft unless the owner has liability insurance covering risks of public liability.

• No owner or operator of an aircraft shall operate the aircraft unless proof of this insurance is carried on board the aircraft

Documents Required to be Carried on Board

• The following documents are required to be carried on board an aircraft and can be remembered with the acronym: AROWJIL

A -Certificate of Airworthiness (Flight Authority) (CAR 605.03/507.02)

R -Certificate of Registration (CAR 202.26)

O -Operator’s Manual/Pilot Operating Handbook (POH)/aircraft flight manual (CAR 605.04)

W -Weight and Balance (Part of Journey Log and POH - see NOTE)

J -Aircraft Journey Log (not required to be carried if it is not planned that the aircraft will land and shut down at any location other than the point of departure) (CAR 605.95)

I -Aircraft Liability Insurance (CAR 606.02)

L -Aircrew Licences (includes Radio Operator's Certificate and Medical) (CAR 401.03

Note:

• Aircraft must carry empty weight and center of gravity information in the Journey Log, unless part of an approved fleet program.

• Weight and balance calculations must be in the Pilot Operating Handbook.

• Pilots must comply with interception rules in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS), but don't need to carry them onboard.

• Radio station licenses don't need to be carried onboard when flying within Canada

401.04 Aerodromes 1

Aerodrome Definitions

Aerodrome: any area of land or water designed for arrival, departure movement, and servicing of aircraft 

Airport: any aerodrome in respect of which a certificate is in force, airport certificate testifies that airport meets airport safety standards

Maneuvering Area: part of aerodrome intended for taking off and landing of aircraft and movement of aircraft associated with takeoff and landing (excluding apron →where aircrafts are parked)

Aerodrome Markings

• An aerodrome operator shall:

• Remove all markers and markings when aerodrome is closed permanently

• Install red flags or cones along boundary of an unserviceable movement area (other than water aerodromes)

• Place a closed making of each end where part or all of taxiway is closed

• Obliterate all markings that indicate the area is open and paint the required markings if maneuvering area is closed permanently

• Closed markings may be in the form of conspicuously coloured dye or constructed from a conspicuously coloured material if maneuvering area is not suitable for painting 

• Wind direction indicators:

• Operator must install wind direction indicator unless wind direction can be determined by radio or other means (must be conspicuous in colour, shape of cone, visible from altitude of 1000 ft, and illuminated when aerodrome is used at night)

• Wind indicator is to be removed when aerodrome is closed permanently

• Certified aerodromes (airports) will be equipped with standard wind direction indicators (usually windsock) that when dry indicate the following:

• Horizontal when wind is 15 knots (kt) or more 

• 5 degrees below horizon when winds are 10 kt

• 30 degrees below horizon when winds are 6 kt

• Windsocks:

• Cones

• Wind blows in large end and out small end

• Uncertified aerodromes may use non-standard wind indicators

• Non-standard wind indicators may react differently than a windsock

Aerodrome Lighting

• Sides of runways shall be indicated by a line of fixed white lights visible in all directions from an aircraft in flight at a distance of not less than 2 nautical miles for aerodromes used at night

• For taxiways, blue lights or blue retro-reflective markers will be used in the same way and the distance between two taxi lights should not be more than 60m

• Operator of aerodrome shall indicate an unserviceable portion of the movement area with fixed red lights, red retro-reflective markers, or floodlighting where aerodrome are used at night

Marshalling Signals

• Marshallers provide guidance to pilots when taxiing aircraft on ground

• Common signals:

• Straight ahead: tells pilot to taxi straight ahead, bend extended arms at elbows and move hands up and down from chest height to head

• Slow down: move extended arms down in a patting gesture, moving hands up and down from waist to knees

• Affirmative/all clear: used in general aviation to let pilot know that no obstacle will be in their way while taxiing, raise right arm to head level and display hand with a thumbs up (left arm remains at side)

• Stop: tells pilot to stop taxiing, extend arms at a 90 degree angle to the sides and slowly move arms above head until arms are crossed in an “X”

• Turn: tells pilot which way to turn, point in desired direction with one arm and signal “straight ahead” with the other 

• Turn left (pilot’s POV): extend right arm straight out to side at 90 degree angle to body, making a “come ahead” signal with left hand

• Turn right (pilot’s POV): extend left arm straight out to side at 90 degree angle to body, making a “come ahead” signal with right hand

• Cut engine: bring right forearm parallel to shoulders at about neck height, draw hand from left shoulder to right (slicing motion)

Runway Markings

Displaced Thresholds: obstacles or unserviceable portions of a runway may result in the need for additional clearance during approach, displaced threshold may be used for taxi, landing roll, and initial takeoff rolls, displaced thresholds may also be used for landing but must be at the pilot’s discretion

Relocated Threshold: used if a portion of the runway is closed, marked as closed and should not be used by aircraft for any purpose

• Runway numbers

• In the Southern Domestic Airspace, correspond to the magnetic bearing rounded to the nearest 10 degrees

• In the Northern Domestic Airspace, numbers are assigned based on true bearings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees

• Last zero is omitted

• Opposite ends of a runway will be 180 degrees apart (will be reciprocal numbers)

Rules of an Aerodrome (Prohibitions)

• No person shall walk, stand, drive, or park a vehicle or aircraft on the movement area without permission from the operator and appropriate ATC or FSS (Flight Service Station)

• Do not tow or park an aircraft at night on an active movement area unless wingtip, tail, and anti-collision lights are displayed:

• Instead, lights may be mounted on the tow vehicle and directed at the aircraft

• If parked, these lights may be substituted with lanterns suspended from wingtips, nose, and tail

• Do not remove, deface, extinguish, or interfere with any markings or light that are used for navigation unless permission is given by the operator or ATC

• Do not place aerodrome markings at a place that is not an aerodrome

• Do not allow pets to be unrestrained at an aerodrome unless permitted by the aerodrome operator

• Do not discharge a firearm at an aerodrome unless permitted by the aerodrome operator

• Smoking or displaying open flame is generally not permitted

401.05 Aerodromes 2

General Operations in the Vicinity of an Aerodrome

• Applies to a persons operating VFR or IFR aircraft at or in the vicinity of an aerodrome (controlled and uncontrolled)

• Before taking-off from, landing at or otherwise operating an aircraft at an aerodrome, the PIC of the aircraft shall be satisfied that:

• There is no likelihood of collision with another aircraft or a vehicle

• The aerodrome is suitable for the intended operation

• The PIC of an aircraft operation at or in the vicinity of an aerodrome shall:

• Observe aerodrome traffic for the purpose of avoiding a collision

• Conform to or avoid the pattern of traffic formed by other aircraft in operation

• When operating within an airport traffic circuit, turn left unless otherwise specified in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) or authorized by Air Traffic Control

• Where the aerodrome is an airport, comply with any airport operating restrictions specified by the minister in the CFS

• Where practicable, land and takeoff into the wind unless otherwise authorized by the appropriate ATC unit

• Maintain a continuous listening watch on the designated air traffic control frequency or monitor for visual instructions

• At a controlled aerodrome, obtain clearance from Air Traffic Control (ATC) before taxiing, taking off, or landing

• Unless authorized by the ATC unit, no PIC shall operate an aircraft at an altitude less than 2000 ft over an aerodrome unless landing or taking off

• Where it is necessary for the purposes of the operation in which the aircraft is engaged, a PIC may operate an aircraft at an altitude less than 2000 ft over an aerodrome, where it is being operated:

• In the service of a police authority

• For the purpose of saving human life

• For firefighting or air ambulance operations

• For the purpose of the administration of the Fisheries Act or the Coastal Fisheries Protection Act

• For the purpose of the administration of the national or provincial parks

• For the purpose of flight inspection

• For the purpose of aerial application or aerial inspection

• For the purpose of highway or city traffic patrol

• For the purpose of aerial photography conducted by the holder of an air operator certificate

• For the purpose of flight training conducted by the holder of a flight training unit operator certificate

VFR + IFR Aircraft Operations at Uncontrolled Aerodromes Within an MF Area

• MF = Mandatory Frequency

• MF ara means area around uncontrolled aerodrome for which all traffic shall be on the designated frequency

• MF area is usually a circle with a 5 nautical mile radius extending up to 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation

• No PIC shall operate a VFR or IFR aircraft within an MF area unless aircraft equipped with radio comm. equipment

• The PIC of a VFR or IFR aircraft operating within an MF area shall maintain a listening watch on frequency specified for area

• The PIC of a VFR aircraft that is not equipped with radio comm. equipment may operate aircraft to or from an uncontrolled aerodrome that lies within an MF area if:

• A ground station is in operation at the aerodrome

• Prior notice of the PIC’s intention to operate the aircraft at the aerodrome has been given to ground station

• PIC ascertains by visual observation that there is no likelihood of collision during takeoff when conduction takeoff

• Aircraft enters aerodrome traffic circuit from a position that will require it to complete two sides of a rectangular circuit before turning onto final approach path when approaching for landing

MF Reporting Procedures Before Entering Maneuvering Area

• The PIC of a VFR or IFR aircraft operated at an uncontrolled aerodrome within an MF area shall report its intentions before entering the maneuvering area

• The PIC of a VFR aircraft arriving at an uncontrolled aerodrome that lies within an MF area shall report:

• Before entering the MF area and, where circumstances permit, shall do so at least five minutes before entering area, giving aircraft’s position, altitude and estimated time of landing, and the PIC’s arrival procedure intentions

• Aircraft’s position in circuit (when joining circuit)

• When on the downwind leg

• When on final approach

• When clear of the surface on which the aircraft has landed

401.06 VFR Flight Conditions

Minimum Instruments for Day VFR

• No person shall operate a glider in day VFR flight unless it is equipped with:

• An altimeter

• An airspeed indicator

• A magnetic compass/magnetic direction indicator

• Radio comm. system adequate to permit two-way comm. on the appropriate frequency when glider is operating

Minimum Visual Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flight in Controlled Airspace

• No person shall operate an aircraft in VFR flight within controlled airspace unless:

• The aircraft is operated with visual reference to the surface

• Flight visibility is not less than three miles

• The distance of the aircraft from cloud is not less than 500 ft vertically and one mile horizontally

• Where the aircraft is operated within a control zone

• When reported, ground visibility is not less than three miles 

• Except when taking off or landing, distance of aircraft from surface is not less than 500 ft

• No person shall operate an aircraft in VFR flight within uncontrolled airspace unless:

• The aircraft is operated with visual reference to the surface

• Where the aircraft is operated at or above 1000 ft AGL

• During the day, flight visibility is not less than one mile

• During the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles

• In either case, distance of the aircraft from cloud is not less than 500 ft vert. and 2000 ft hor. 

• During the day, flight visibility is not less than two miles, except if authorized by certified air/private operator

• During night, flight visibility is not less than three miles

• In either case, aircraft is operated clear of clouds

• Number Memory Tool

• 3, 1, 5: Controlled (3 statute miles visibility, 1sm horizontal from cloud, 500 ft vert. from clouds)

• 1, 2, 5: Uncontrolled > 1000 ft (1sm vis., 2000 ft hor. from clouds, 500 ft vert. from clouds) - Day

• 2 C: Uncontrolled < 1000 (2sm vis., stay clear of clouds) - Day

Special Visual Flight Rules (SVFR)

• If weather conditions are less than those necessary to fly in a Control Zone (CZ), pilots can request permission from control unit to fly VFR. To operate:

• PIC must request and be authorized

• When reported, Ground Visibility cannot be < one mile

• The aircraft equipped with appropriate radiocomm. equipment

• Aircraft must be operated clear of clouds + with visual reference to ground at all times

• Night SVFR to takeoff and leave or enter and land in CZ

401.07 Airspace Review (refer to presentation for pictures)

Canadian Domestic Airspace = geographically into Southern Domestic Airspace + Northern Domestic Airspace

• Seven main airspace categories (named A through G)

• A Class has most restrictions, G has least

Control Zone:

• Defined airspace around an airport extending from surface to specified height

• Area starts at surface and usually extends to 3000 ft above ground level with normal radius of 5 or 7 nautical miles

• Designated around certain aerodromes to keep IFR aircraft within controlled airspace during approaches and to facilitate control of VFR + IFR traffic

Control Area Extension:

• Defined space area near airport located above control zone that protest aircraft joining nearby airways

• Based at 2200 ft AGL unless otherwise specified and extend up to but not including 18000 ft above sea level

401.08 Rules of the Air

Right of Way:

• Aircraft in emergency has right of way

• Aircraft on furthest right has right of way unless other aircrafts are harder to control (hot air balloons, airships, gliders, planes carrying a load

• Aircraft should not go over or under aircraft with right of way unless passing at safe distance

• If two aircrafts are flying head-on, both should turn right

• Aircraft being overtaken has right of way

• Landing aircrafts have right of way

• If two aircrafts are approaching a landing, the aircraft at a lower altitude has right of way

• Aircraft at lower altitude shall not overtake/cut in front of aircraft at higher altitude

• No one should conduct/attempt a takeoff/landing until there is no more risk

Dropping of Objects:

• Don’t drop anything hazardous out of the aircraft

Forest Fires:

• No one should operate an aircraft over a forest fire area (area located within 5NM of forest fire area at altitude of >3000 ft AGL OR any airspace described as a forest fire)

Flight over Built-up Areas:

• Flying over built-up area = aircraft within horizontal distance of 2000 ft from aircraft other than helicopter or balloon

• No one shall conduct takeoff/approach/landing over built-up area unless operated at altitude that is easily landable in case of emergency OR if at an airport, heliport, or military aerodrome

Formation Flying:

• No one shall perform formation flying unless there was a prearrangement between the PICs OR if the flight is within a control zone, the PICs and ATC unit

Aerobatics:

• No aerobatic maneuver

• Over built-up area/open-air assembly of people

• When flight visibility is less than three miles

• Below 2000 ft AGL (except with issued special flight operations certificate)

• In class of airspace that requires radio contact with air traffic services

• In class A, B, C airspace or class D control zone without prior coordination\

• Can’t perform aerobatics unless PIC has engaged in:

• At least 10hrs of dual flight instruction in conducting maneuvers/20hrs conducting maneuvers

• At least 1hr of conducting aerobatic maneuvers in preceding six months

VFR Cruising Altitudes:

• Appropriate cruising altitude/cruising flight level for an aircraft in level cruising flight determined in accordance with:

• Magnetic track (Southern Domestic Airspace)

• True track (Northern Domestic Airspace)

• PIC shall ensure aircraft is operated at cruising altitude appropriate to track unless told otherwise by ATC and aircraft operated at <3000ft AGL in VFR

 --> applies to flights conducted at 18000ft ASL and below (above 3000ft AGL

• Above 18000ft referred to as Cruising Flight Levels and will be abbreviated to first three digits in the tens of thousands (25000ft written as FL250)

401.09 Aircraft Maintenance, Aviation Occurrences, and Flight Plans and Itineraries

Aircraft Maintenance: 

• Against the law (CARS) to fly airplane not maintained as per its airworthiness limitations

• Against CARS to fly when aircraft has undergone maintenance, unless maintenance has been certified and signed off in aircraft documents

• Exceptions: crew required for maintenance test flight, official observers, pilot must enter in log that test flight was completed before aircraft used in service

• No maintenance release required for elementary tasks (ex: fabric patches 15cm or less, tire maintenance, wing+tail maintenance, batteries, control lever/pedals maintenance →only those designed for rapid removal/replacement)

• All aircrafts should have approved maintenance program

Aviation Occurrences:

• Any accident/incident associated with operation of aircraft

• Any situation/condition that Board believes has reasonable grounds to believe could (if left unattended) induce accident/incident

• Reportable Aviation Accident = accident resulting directly from operation of aircraft 

• Where person sustains serious injury/dies as a result of being on aircrat, coming into contact with aircraft, or being directly exposed to jet blast of aircraft

• Aircraft is missing/inaccessible

• Aircraft sustains damage/failure that affects its strength/performance/flight characteristics and requires MAJOR repair/replacement

• Reportable Aviation Incident = aviation occurrence not considered an accident (still affects/has potential to affect safety of operation

• Engine fails, smoke/fire occurs, fuel shortage, risk of collision

Flight Plans and Itineraries:

• No PIC shall operate aircraft in VFR flight unless flight plan/itinerary has been filed (unless flight is conducted within 25NM of point of departure)

• Regardless of distance aircraft will travel from departure point, flight plan is required for flights that leave Canada to other country

• Flight Plan

• Shall be filed with ATC unit, flight service station, or community aerodrome radio station 

• Unless search and rescue time was specified when flight plan was filed, search and rescue will begin 1hr after last report ETA

• Flight Itinerary

• Less formal than flight plan

• Shall be filed by responsible person or any of the people that can file a Flight Plan

• Unless otherwise specified, search and rescue will being 24hrs after last reported ETA

• Responsible Person = individual who agreed with person who has filed the flight itinerary to ensure help if aircraft is overdue

Arrival Reports:

• After landing an arrival report shall be filed with people eligible to file a flight itinerary as appropriate ASAP 

• When arrival report is filed, flight plan/itinerary will be closed and will terminate all alerting services with respect to search and rescue notification

• If flight plan has been filed, arrival report must be made as soon as practical after landing but not later than 1hr after last reported ETA

• If flight itinerary was used for flight, arrival report must be made no later than 24hrs after last reported ETA

• Arrival report shall include:

• Aircraft registration mark, flight numbers, or radio call sign

• The type of flight plan (IFR or VFR) or flight itinerary

• The departure aerodrome

• The arrival aerodrome

• The date and time of arrival