AP HUMAN GEO STUDY GUIDE

Review agricultural Hearths and remember timeline: Fertile Crescent, Southeast Asia, Indus Valley, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Mesoamerica.

Agricultural hearth important rivers: Tigris and Euphrates Fertile Crescent, Yellow and Yangtze Rivers Southeast and East Asia, Ganges River Indus Valley, Nile River Sub-Saharan Africa, and Mississippi and Rio Grande Rivers Mesoamerica.

Remember agricultural revolutions, The Second Agricultural Revolution mainly focused on mechanics and industry (rise of machinery in agriculture), Third/Green Agricultural Revolution mainly focused on Scientific innovations, such as GMOs, Pesticides, and Fertilizers.

Know the difference between Metes and Bounds and Township and Range systems of measuring land. M&B is using visual cues and T&R is using square feet.

Bid-Rent Theory: The concept of having more expensive farm/ranchland the closer you are to a major city or market place.

Von Thunen Model & Order of circles: Proto-circle is the market, Market Gardening, Forestry, Grains, and Ranching. (Remember that proximity to the market depends on how quickly the product can spoil.)

The MOST wasteful agricultural practice is Irrigation.

Pros and Cons of GMOs: GMOs are very strong against pests and harsh climates; however, GMO side effects on human health are relatively unknown and many studies have shown that they may cause cancer.

Aquaculture: Essentially a fish ranch where they mass-produce tons of fish and where we get most of our fish products today, more than 50%.

Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture: Subsistence is farming for your family (Only to survive throughout the year), commercial farming is to maximize earnings and profits. More than 97% of farms in the USA are Commercial.

Three types of Commercial Agriculture: Monoculture, Mono-cropping, and Multi-cropping. Monoculture: Agriculture where you ONLY grow ONE crop always. (Plantation Farming, i.e. cotton, corn, wheat, soybeans.), Mono-cropping: Like multicropping except you take a break every other year, lastly, Multi-cropping: Agriculture defined by crop rotation, and growing multiple crops at the same time.

Urban Hierarchy: Hamlet, Village, Town, City.

Mega-cities: Cities that have about 10 Million inhabitants but not quite as large as they could be.

Meta-cities: Largest and most influential cities of the world with at least 20 Million Inhabitants.

Boomburbs: Cities that are not as large or influential, but are still relatively well known, mostly in the local area. Only has about 100,000 inhabitants.

Globalization: The process of increased
interconnectedness among countries most notably in the areas of economics, politics, and culture.

Sector Models: Remember which models have particular characteristics. Sub-Saharan city models have three central business districts, Latin American city models have the richer population closer to the central business district, and lastly Southeast Asian cities have ports and small gardens for agriculture.

Redlining: When bankers openly practice housing discrimination against others based on race, ethnicity, and income level. Defined by having a map with red areas that are the least desirable houses in the area.

Know which two forms of data are used to collect information. Qualitative data: Subjective, usually gained from conducting surveys, interviews, or observing other people. Quantitative Data: Data gained through objective means. Census data and data gained through observations using math, accounting, and statistics.

Infrastructure: All of the structures and facilities provided by the local governments through taxes paid by citizens. i.e.: Roads, school funding, water supply, sewage, drainage, electric utilities, and telecommunications (internet and phone lines).

A city’s power is defined by how influential they are politically, economically, and culturally.

Usually, in American cities, the closer you are to the central business district the poorer & lower quality homes are according to bid-rent theory. However, businesses closer to the central business district are of the highest quality.

The Five Sectors of the economy: Primary/ Agriculture and Mining jobs. Secondary/factory and manufacturing jobs. Third/service jobs like being a lawyer, doctor, engineer, and retail workers. Fourth/computer science and Information Technology jobs (I.T.). Fifth/political and top leadership positions. (Company presidents, judges, CEOs, and most in politics.).

Core Countries: Super rich and powerful countries. Most people here work on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th. (U.S.A., Germany, U.K.).

Semi-Periphery Countries: Countries that are neither too poor, rich, or powerful. Most people here work in 3rd, 2nd, and a small percentage work in 1st sector jobs. (Mexico, South Africa, Vietnam).

Periphery: Countries that are poor and most people here work in the first sector. (Guatemala, Democratic Republic of the Congo, East Timor.)

Stages of Economic Growth: 1. traditional society/Periphery (Very high birth rates and death rates, 0 growth overall), 2. transitional stage/Periphery (Still very
high birth and death rates, but some growth), 3. take-off stage/Semi-Periphery (0 growth at all, neither positive or negative), 4. drive to maturity stage/Core (A little bit of growth, usually very prosperous, balanced.), 5. high mass consumption stage/Core (Very low birth and death rates, population decline, more elderly citizens than citizens in youth/ working years).

Lower Order Services: Common businesses found across most cities in the U.S.A. (Gas stations, fast food restaurants, Wal-Mart, and Auto Mechanic businesses.) Higher Order Services: More luxurious services found in larger cities like Houston and N.Y.C. (Neurosurgeons, luxury car dealerships, and high end jewelry shops.)

Columbian Exchange:

Remember the fundamentals of this language tree (Germanic, Slavic, Iranian, and Romance languages):

Review agricultural Hearths and remember timeline: Fertile Crescent (around 9,000 BCE), Southeast Asia, Indus Valley, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Mesoamerica. These are the regions where agriculture independently emerged, leading to settled societies.

Agricultural hearth important rivers: Tigris and Euphrates (Fertile Crescent, known for early irrigation), Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Southeast and East Asia, rice cultivation), Ganges River (Indus Valley), Nile River (Sub-Saharan Africa), and Mississippi and Rio Grande Rivers (Mesoamerica). These rivers provided essential water for crop growth and transportation.

Remember agricultural revolutions: The Second Agricultural Revolution mainly focused on mechanics and industry (rise of machinery in agriculture, increased efficiency). The Third/Green Agricultural Revolution mainly focused on Scientific innovations, such as GMOs, Pesticides, and Fertilizers, which dramatically increased crop yields but also raised environmental concerns.

Know the difference between Metes and Bounds (M&B, uses natural landmarks and directions, resulting in irregular shapes) and Township and Range systems (T&R, uses a grid system based on square miles, creating rectangular patterns) of measuring land. M&B is using visual cues and T&R is using square feet.

Bid-Rent Theory: The concept of having more expensive farm/ranchland the closer you are to a major city or market place. This is because closer land reduces transportation costs and provides better access to markets.

Von Thunen Model & Order of circles: Proto-circle is the market, Market Gardening (fruits and vegetables), Forestry (timber), Grains (wheat, corn), and Ranching (livestock). (Remember that proximity to the market depends on how quickly the product can spoil.) This model explains land use around a central market city.

The MOST wasteful agricultural practice is Irrigation. It depletes water resources, can lead to soil salinization, and often requires energy-intensive pumping systems.

Pros and Cons of GMOs: GMOs are very strong against pests and harsh climates; however, GMO side effects on human health are relatively unknown and many studies have shown that they may cause cancer. GMOs can increase yields and reduce pesticide use but raise debates about long-term health and environmental impacts.

Aquaculture: Essentially a fish ranch where they mass-produce tons of fish and where we get most of our fish products today, more than 50%. It helps meet global seafood demand but can lead to habitat destruction and disease spread.

Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture: Subsistence is farming for your family (Only to survive throughout the year), commercial farming is to maximize earnings and profits. More than 97% of farms in the USA are Commercial. Subsistence farming is common in developing countries, while commercial farming dominates in developed regions.

Three types of Commercial Agriculture: Monoculture (ONLY grow ONE crop always, e.g., Plantation Farming, i.e. cotton, corn, wheat, soybeans.), Mono-cropping (Like multicropping except you take a break every other year), lastly, Multi-cropping (defined by crop rotation, and growing multiple crops at the same time). Each has distinct impacts on soil health and biodiversity.

Urban Hierarchy: Hamlet, Village, Town, City. This hierarchy reflects increasing population, services, and economic specialization.

Mega-cities: Cities that have about 10 Million inhabitants but not quite as large as they could be. Examples include Lagos, Nigeria, and Cairo, Egypt.

Meta-cities: Largest and most influential cities of the world with at least 20 Million Inhabitants. Examples include Tokyo, Japan, and Delhi, India.

Boomburbs: Cities that are not as large or influential, but are still relatively well known, mostly in the local area. Only has about 100,000 inhabitants. They often experience rapid growth due to suburban expansion.

Globalization: The process of increased interconnectedness among countries most notably in the areas of economics, politics, and culture. It involves the exchange of goods, ideas, and people on a global scale.

Sector Models: Remember which models have particular characteristics. Sub-Saharan city models have three central business districts (colonial, traditional, and market), Latin American city models have the richer population closer to the central business district, and lastly Southeast Asian cities have ports and small gardens for agriculture. These models reflect unique historical and cultural contexts.

Redlining: When bankers openly practice housing discrimination against others based on race, ethnicity, and income level. Defined by having a map with red areas that are the least desirable houses in the area. This practice has contributed to urban segregation and inequality.

Know which two forms of data are used to collect information. Qualitative data: Subjective, usually gained from conducting surveys, interviews, or observing other people. Quantitative Data: Data gained through objective means. Census data and data gained through observations using math, accounting, and statistics. Qualitative data provides rich insights, while quantitative data offers statistical validity.

Infrastructure: All of the structures and facilities provided by the local governments through taxes paid by citizens. i.e.: Roads, school funding, water supply, sewage, drainage, electric utilities, and telecommunications (internet and phone lines). It is essential for supporting urban and rural development.

A city’s power is defined by how influential they are politically, economically, and culturally. Global cities like New York and London exert significant influence worldwide.

Usually, in American cities, the closer you are to the central business district the poorer & lower quality homes are according to bid-rent theory. However, businesses closer to the central business district are of the highest quality due to accessibility and visibility.

The Five Sectors of the economy: Primary/ Agriculture and Mining jobs. Secondary/factory and manufacturing jobs. Third/service jobs like being a lawyer, doctor, engineer, and retail workers. Fourth/computer science and Information Technology jobs (I.T.). Fifth/political and top leadership positions. (Company presidents, judges, CEOs, and most in politics.). This classification helps understand economic development levels.

Core Countries: Super rich and powerful countries. Most people here work on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th. (U.S.A., Germany, U.K.). They drive global economic trends and innovation.

Semi-Periphery Countries: Countries that are neither too poor, rich, or powerful. Most people here work in 3rd, 2nd, and a small percentage work in 1st sector jobs. (Mexico, South Africa, Vietnam). They play a crucial role in connecting core and periphery countries.

Periphery: Countries that are poor and most people here work in the first sector. (Guatemala, Democratic Republic of the Congo, East Timor.) They often depend on core countries for economic support.

Stages of Economic Growth: 1. traditional society/Periphery (Very high birth rates and death rates, 0 growth overall), 2. transitional stage/Periphery (Still very high birth and death rates, but some growth), 3. take-off stage/Semi-Periphery (0 growth at all, neither positive or negative), 4. drive to maturity stage/Core (A little bit of growth, usually very prosperous, balanced.), 5. high mass consumption stage/Core (Very low birth and death rates, population decline, more elderly citizens than citizens in youth/ working years). Rostow’s model explains how countries progress economically.

Lower Order Services: Common businesses found across most cities in the U.S.A. (Gas stations, fast food restaurants, Wal-Mart, and Auto Mechanic businesses.) Higher Order Services: More luxurious services found in larger cities like Houston and N.Y.C. (Neurosurge